There's a Heifer in Your Tank

There's a Heifer in Your Where?

An Sc 200 students and their cow made their way through Edmonton to Northland's Farm Fair 2011...Check out their journey: Starbucks, Sunterra, the Pub, the train!

 

I am Cow Here Me Moo!

Why can't horses throw up?

 

First, in answer to the question, “Can horses throw up?” NO, they cannot throw up. But did you ever wonder why? Well our team at the University of Alberta has researched this question and came up with a detailed response.

When a horse first ingests food, it is swallowed through the mouth cavity and is passed down the esophagus. Horses have a strong band of muscle around their esophagus at the entrance to the stomach, called the “cardiac sphincter” also referred to as the “esophageal sphincter”. The cardiac sphincter is actually the strongest sphincter muscle of all species. The cardiac sphincter exists in all mammals at the top of the stomach, and in the horses it differs from other mammals because of its extreme strength and inability to relax and allow the horse to throw up like other mammals. As stated by Dr. Susan Novak, the AAFRD(Alberta Agriculture Food and Rural Development) Provincial Horse Specialist, “The horse is not able to throw up because the cardiac sphincter connecting the esophagus and stomach is so strong, that food is only allowed to go in one direction: Down! The horse is adapted to eating small frequent meals, and therefore the sphincters work to keep the feed moving constantly along the digestive tract.”

 

It seems the horse is at an advantage because it cannot throw up. First, the stomach of the equine species is very acidic like any other species. Second, this action of the cardiac sphincter and the pyloric sphincter at the exiting end of the stomach allow for the continual movement of the digestive system in the right direction, and prevent any backups, which could be very detrimental to the horse, causing conditions including colic. Horses are very instinctive and will usually avoid harmful feed that could cause them to become ill.

Since it is impossible for a horse to throw up, there is no way for anything to escape the stomach. As stated by Dr. Lana Bissett, from the Edmonton Equine Veterinary Services, “Cases of horses having spontaneous reflux is uncommon.” Based on the anatomy of the cardiac sphincter it will rarely release and because it so strong that the stomach lining will rupture before the sphincter gives way. This is a bad situation for horses and after the stomach has ruptured the horse will die.

There is something you can do for a horse once you’ve noticed that it’s showing colicky symptoms. But the procedure must be done quickly before the stomach lining ruptures. The procedure is known as tubing. A trained veterinarian must be contacted to tube the horse, and should not be attempted by the owner, because it is very easy to make a mistake. The vet will pass a tube (stiff with a bulb on the end) nasogastrically (through the nose) down the esophagus, and pass it through the cardiac sphincter, as stated by Dr. Lana Bissett, “Tubing, works well as it forces the sphincter open which releases the pressured contents, usually gases and sometimes fluids will be released right away or after gentle siphoning. Recovery is usually favorable (depending on the condition).”

- Shanna Hlady, Melissa Kozakewich and Lindsay Paulsen

Are turkeys really stupid: can they really drown in a rainstorm?

An investigation into the causes of death reveals that curiosity not only kills the cat  

 

The idea that turkeys drown in a rainstorm has been heard for generations. Farmers used to report that their turkeys would hold their heads up to the sky and let the water run down their throats, eventually drowning themselves. Turkeys have often been thought of as “stupid birds” and perhaps this has contributed to the overall negative stereotype on turkeys. The question is not so much can turkeys drown in a rainstorm, but how does a turkey drown and what factors affect turkey survival?

A turkey’s brain accounts for only 2% of its body-weight putting it among the lowest of the bird brains. However, we all know that intelligence cannot be directly measured from brain size – some of the smallest brains, by percent body mass, are among the most intelligent. Turkeys are more curious than anything and as a result they often find themselves in “sticky situations,” explains Cathy Kimak, a former poultry producer. As well, turkeys can no longer reproduce naturally due to the large size of their breast. In fact, they are so out of balance, they can hardly walk! But this didn’t stop Benjamin Franklin from feeling that the turkey should be the national bird for the American emblem. And he wasn’t the only one who held a special place for the traditional turkey – Sesame Street incorporated the turkey into the making of Big Bird’s costume, which is composed of about 4000 turkey feathers dyed yellow.

By now it should be evident that the idea of turkeys drowning in a rainstorm not only sounds ridiculous, but is highly unlikely. What are the chances a turkey would stand in the rain long enough to drown itself. Even in the worst of storms, turkeys are not going to drown; they are going to die from various other factors.

 

Whether in intensive or extensive operations, “turkeys are one of the hardest animals to keep alive,” explains Darrel Ulledal, a turkey pharmaceutical sales associate with Elanco. The critical period for survival is the first two weeks following hatch – at this time the mortality rate is close to 70%. In extensive operations, weather is the key factor that influences the high mortality rate of turkeys. Poults, who have not yet fully developed their feathers, are especially susceptible to cold and wet weather because they are only covered with a soft down. Other detrimental factors include: electrocution by lightning or electric fence, suffocation or crushing by other turkeys and lack of food and clean water. Drowning, not due to the rain, may also happen. One farmer tells a story about accidentally leaving a 10-gallon bucket in his turkey pen one day. One of the birds was curious, jumped in, and was unable to get back out. Another heard the racket and jumped in to check it out. The end result when he returned? Ten gallons of dead turkey with one very confused bird on top wondering why all the gobbling had stopped! Predation is also a major factor when it comes to extensive operations. Predation increases during and after rainstorms because turkeys are extremely smelly when wet. Predators with a keen sense of smell can easily locate them because of this. Failed generators can also result in the death of turkeys; generators are responsible for the proper circulation of air, maintaining the right temperature and oxygen level, and many other variables which are critical to a turkeys’ survival.

With all of these factors influencing the survival of turkeys, it is in the farmer’s best interest to find ways to protect his livestock. The more turkeys that survive the more of a profit the farmer makes. One way of controlling factors like weather and predation is switching a livestock operation from extensive to intensive farming.

Extensive farming is essentially outdoor-raised livestock. It involves a larger amount of land but because it uses nature, it tends to be of a lower cost. The turkeys can use sunlight, which enables utilization of vitamin D, and since they are foraging birds, they can obtain nutrients naturally from the pasture, which reduces feed costs. However, some find this method of farming inhumane due to exposure to the elements, possible disease spread from wild animals, and predation. A farm like this can have mortality rates of over 30%. With management, these factors can be minimized. For example, electric fencing can be used to keep out predators.

Intensive farming uses very little land, and attempts to reproduce an ideal outdoor environment indoors. This involves controlling variables like temperature, ventilation, humidity, and photoperiod (hours of daylight). Although this gives the farmer a certain amount of control, using this method brings rise to other issues like pecking among birds, lack of activity, and behavioral issues. Intensive farming is also more expensive due to things like building and energy costs. Both methods have their advantages and disadvantages, but both can prove to be profitable using the right management techniques.

We can now see that the myth about turkeys drowning in the rain is an unlikely story that arose from the fact that turkeys are very curious creatures that tend to get themselves into life-endangering situations. Turkeys are very susceptible to extreme weather conditions, predation, and other factors; this makes it very difficult for farmers to protect their birds when they are housed in extensive operations. Therefore, intensive operations may be a better choice when deciding on proper housing to improve survival rates of turkeys. However, in either extensive or intensive farming operations, there is a huge importance placed on management and disease prevention in order to maximize survival and minimize death losses.

- Melissa Croft, Leeanne Kimak and Krissia Menjivar

Can you taste the TLC in a pig?

The quality of meat can be compromised when a pig is not treated humanely 

Today’s consumers are becoming increasingly more aware and concerned with the quality and safety of the food they eat. The issue of animal welfare in the meat industry is a hot topic today as people are paying more attention to the processes that bring their food from the field to the plate. Science has also played a fundamental role in the agri-food industry in supporting the humane treatment of livestock animals destined for the grocery store, by emphasizing the relationship between animal welfare and food safety.

The pork industry is recognizing that consumers are concerned with food safety and animal welfare and are taking steps to reduce the stress of pigs destined for slaughter. It has been found that pigs which are not treated with tender loving care can become stressed and this can have a permanent and negative effect on the palatability of their meat. There are several sources of stress, but many of these can be eliminated or reduced through various handling methods. Stress can cause different conditions of meat quality but the most common in pigs is PSE, which stands for Pale, Soft and Exudative (watery) meat. PSE meat describes the meat of an animal that has been stressed pre-slaughter. This type of meat may be seen in many species but occurs most frequently in pigs. According to Dr. Mick Price, Professor of Animal Science at the University of Alberta, “a packaged piece of PSE pork appears as a shapeless piece of meat sitting in a pool of blood”. The leaking fluid contains the red myoglobin pigment which is why, when packaged, the meat would appear to be sitting in a pool of “blood” and also why the meat becomes pale. This type of meat is visually unappealing and is generally rejected by consumers when given the choice between normal and PSE meat. Stress that lead to PSE meat can occur on the farm, during transportation, or during processing. Genetics can also play a role in the development of stress. Pigs that are born with a hereditary trait called Porcine Stress Syndrome (PSS) have a reduced ability to cope with stress and as a result are more susceptible to severe Pale, Soft and Exudative meat.

 

On the farm, stress can arise if pigs are not exposed frequently to human contact. This can cause pigs to become extremely stressed when they are handled by humans during transport and processing. By familiarizing pigs to humans from the beginning of their life, they will not be as stressed when confronted with them later on. According to hog producer, Kurt Preugschas, “important aspects of minimizing stress include being calm and patient when around the pigs and not overcrowding pens”.

During the transport process pigs can become stressed when they are crowded and rushed onto unfamiliar trucks with other unfamiliar pigs. To reduce this stress, pigs should have sufficient time to rest before and after transport and each pig should have enough room to lay down during longer duration trips. Trucks should have adequate ventilation to keep the animals from overheating, and transport should take place during early morning to avoid high temperatures, which would make the pigs more uncomfortable.

 

The time right before slaughter is the most crucial period to reduce stress, since the prevalence of PSE is greatest during this short time. Therefore, harsh handling methods, such as the use of electric stock prods, should not be used excessively. Also, pigs should have time to rest before they are slaughtered, and should be moved in small groups because this is more natural for them. Slaughtering should be done in such a way to reduce the struggling of the animal, since this is directly related to the stress of the animal.

Today, animal welfare in the pork industry is evermore supported by science because the treatment of pigs affects the palatability of their meat. All in all, everybody wins when a little effort is put into to the humane treatment of animals – the consumer gets a better quality product with the confidence that the animal was treated well, the producer benefits from increased profits, and of course the pigs benefit too.

- Kenna Haldord, Laura-Anne Kutryk and Erin Visscher

Soymilk, a great alternative to dairy milk?

 

Soymilk is a soy-based product that is a healthy alternative to traditional dairy beverages and can be found at most local supermarkets. Health conscious individuals or those who are lactose intolerant may find soymilk to be a good replacement to cow’s milk because of its beneficial properties. These properties include key elements such as lowering cholesterol as well as the risk of heart disease, due to the lower fat content.

Creating soymilk consists of four simple steps; crushing the soybeans, soaking them in water, boiling them and straining the slurry to extract the liquid form of the soybean. After soymilk is extracted, vitamins and minerals such as calcium and vitamin D are added as these vitamins and minerals fortify the soy milk to the levels seen in cow’s milk. A variety of flavors such as chocolate, vanilla, strawberry and many others are also added to enhance the taste and appeal of the beverage. The end product is an enriched drink that has all the benefits of cow’s milk, while having significantly less calories, fat and cholesterol content.

 

Soymilk has long been recognized for its health benefits worldwide. In 1999 the Federal Drug Administration (FDA) authorized a health claim between the relationship of soy protein and its effect on coronary heart disease. Phytochemicals; plant based chemical compounds in soy protein, have antioxidant properties and can help reduce low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, also known as the “bad” cholesterol. These phytochemicals in soymilk are called Isoflavones, which have a chemical structure similar to estrogen. According to Julia MacLaren who is part of the nutrition program at the University of Alberta, “Soy is a good source of estrogen for women going through menopause and may reduce symptoms”. Many other benefits such as improving bone health, reducing cancer risk and protecting against prostrate problems have been associated with soymilk and are now being studied.

Our neighbors to the south, the United States of America, grow most of the soybeans in the world, accounting for 40% of worldwide soybean production in 2004. Canadian soybean production is mostly limited to the eastern provinces of Ontario and Quebec; to find out more about Canadian growers visit the site: http://www.soybean.on.ca/index.php. Soybeans have been traditionally associated with Asian cultures that used soy to supplement their protein intake. Since then it has been adapted as a high protein feed for beef producers around the world and the production of tofu and other soy products.

Soymilk has been steadily increasing in popularity with consumers and is now available at all major supermarket chains as well as health food and organic stores. We had a chance to talk with Karmeyn Tesiar, from Home Grown Foods and Agriculture Products in Stoney Plain Alberta, to talk about soymilk. We asked her about sales and product popularity. She replied saying that it was not very popular in her store and that they sell more goats’ milk and cows’ milk than they do soymilk. We also asked what types of customers were purchasing soymilk; her answer was “people with hormone imbalances and people looking for a source of milk substitute.” Her perceptions on soymilk were both good and bad and she needs to do more research on the product before she finalizes her opinion on soymilk.

The future of soymilk seems bright as its health benefits continue to be explored and its popularity among consumers increases steadily. Advertising for the product can be seen on television and in many magazines as the soymilk industry seeks to firmly establish itself as a competitor for your traditional dairy beverage.

- Robyn Adderson, Anthony Hodson and Eric MacDonald

What the smell is that?

Why do cows smell like cows and pigs smell like money?    

The majority of you probably remember a time when escaping the fast-paced urban life meant a peaceful drive in the countryside. The crops waving in the wind, the quiet sounds of nature, and of course, the crisp country air upon each breath, but that’s when it hits you. What’s that smell? Panic sets in as you reach for the window, fumbling with the latch, blaming your family and friends, not realizing that the terrible smell is caused by an agricultural livestock operation you’re passing. But which animal is mostly responsible? Is it the large-scale swine operations with their open lagoons and liquid manure spreading, or is it the dairy barns and feedlot operations and their resident cattle?

Dr. Grant Clark obtained both his undergraduate and graduate degree in agricultural engineering, and presently a research associate at the University of Alberta where he spent time working with a bioresearch engineering group. Dr. Lorraine Doepel obtained her undergraduate degree in animal science at the University of Alberta, where she then spent time working as a nutritionist in the feed industry obtaining her PhD in 1997.

We may mistakenly assume that both cows and swine in a mass agricultural production setting smell quite similar, but what causes the odor? We have receptors in our nose that tell us when something smells good or bad, which Dr. G. Clark states that the “measurement of pleasantness or unpleasantness [of odor] is called hedonic tone” and “can be different for everybody”.

The difference in smell between pigs and cows is due to different microbial communities. Microorganisms can be found almost everywhere, including the animal’s digestive tract and manure. These microorganisms, which work in the absence of air (anaerobic), break down and degrade the manure, and as a result produce the odorous compounds that are interpreted as smell.

The type of odor causing molecule that actually gets produced is influenced by differences in substrate availability in swine and cattle manures. Dr. L. Doepel suggested that “odor is related to diet and digestive processes...which vary among species”. Compounds like VFAs, phenols, and indoles in particular, are most closely associated with the odor we smell.

In pigs, microbial conversion of manure is done in both the large intestine and their excrement. Dr. G. Clark states “the feces and bedding all give off volatile compounds.” Manure is mainly composed of undigested dietary residue, bodily secretions, bacteria cells, and their metabolic remains. In a swine’s large intestine and in the feces, protein that is ingested is broken down by microbes, and the remnants of this reaction are largely responsible for the odor causing particles. Dr. G. Clark agrees, “If you feed [pigs] a lot of protein, more than they need, more sulfur-containing groups are being excreted.” Compounds like skatole, responsible for the unpleasant odor in male pigs, also known as boar taint, are produced by the breakdown of indoles. Amylase is an enzyme that is released into the pig intestine to aid in the breakdown of starches. Since this facilitated process exists, more protein is passed through the intestine which results in more microorganisms, producing more odorous compounds.

Cattle, on the other hand, have a fecal composition that contains lower amounts of protein and a higher percentage of starch. “[Cattle’s] fibrous diet... dictates a lower need for amylase in the small intestine” says Dr. Doepel. The microorganisms found in the cattle manure will harvest the starch as their main source of food instead of protein, and as a consequence, produce differing compounds than swine, usually considered less offensive.

The difference in compounds produced is important because differing molecules have different odor threshold values (OTVs) and affect the apparent smell. Microorganisms that breakdown the protein contained in swine manure produce branched chain VFAs and aromatic compounds with substantially lower OTVs than molecules produced from the breakdown of starch. In other words, since the compounds contained in swine manure have lower OTVs, create the perception of bad odor when in lower numbers or concentration.

There are many ways odor can be suppressed, and these solutions can be dependent on the animal. Management of manure plays a large role in decreasing animal odor, for example, when spread on fields, it can be immediately ploughed under so it does not evaporate and release ammonia. Other alternatives like chemical treatments can be added to the feces or used in cleaning the facilities, which will reduce the odor and limit the growth of bacteria that can be harmful to the animals or humans. Clark says, “Also whether you store your manure aerobically or aerobically has a big influence on what sort of microbes grow and what kind of volatiles are emitted”.

Dr. Clark states that diet manipulation can be a means of reducing the odor. By decreasing the crude protein intake, less protein is being excreted leading to lower concentrations of malodorous molecules found in the feces. Furthermore, studies have found that a barley-based diet will produce fewer odors than sorghum-based diet due to the fermentation differences in digestion. If blood meal is an ingredient in the swine diet, which is high in protein, then an increase in odor emission will be a result due to excess protein not being digested and is therefore a participant in anaerobic breakdown.

So, why does a pig smell like money? Swine produce odor molecules that can be considered offensive in lower numbers than cattle, so in the farmer’s defense to the critics, he replies with “well I think they smell like money”. Cow odor is also beginning to smell like “money” because odor emissions are becoming a greater problem of in response to encroaching communities. Even though there is no actual legal definition determining the amounts of odor allowed, the municipality has a say on farm expansion and can prevent farm growth. “Europe is 15 to 20 years ahead of [Canada] in issues of manure management”, says Clark “because they have to deal with those issues now [odor], because of population”. All in all, as a province, we should be looking ahead and preparing for this issue of odor that is arising.

- Tyler Fletcher, Kayde Schuler and Rendall Warnock

Healthy diets and high quality meat

Its time to put the fear aside

The search for a healthy diet continues to be an issue of importance for our society, and it seems that somewhere along the way we have developed a fear of red meat. For many of us, red meat has long been a food that we tend to avoid because we question its quality and commonly associate its red color with blood. But did you know that the red in a rare steak isn’t blood, it’s a healthy protein? Meat is loaded with nutrients including iron and zinc, and with the cattle industry reaching an all time high for quality breeding, it’s time to put meat back on the menu.

Consumers want to know that their food is safe and of a high quality, particularly when it comes to beef. The steak that you get from your local deli contains little to no blood because it is removed in the packing process. The red coloring in raw beef comes from the protein myoglobin, which is fixed in the muscle tissue of an animal. Beef has added health benefits because of this myoglobin as it contains a heme iron, the same iron that is an essential mineral in your diet. In fact, beef the richest food source of highly absorbable iron.

Dr. Catherine Field, PhD, RD and Professor of Nutrition at the U of A comments on just how important iron is in a healthy diet. “Red meat is not only a source of protein, but it’s one of the major sources of iron in our diets, particularly heme iron,” she explains. “That’s absorbed much better by our bodies then non-heme iron which comes from plants.” A deficiency of iron in your diet can have some unpleasant side-effect including fatigue, irritability and headaches. When you skip on the red meat, not only do you miss out on the protein and iron, but zinc as well. “Red meat is also the major source of zinc in our diets,” Dr. Field adds, “and zinc is a very important micronutrient that is essential for the functioning of the immune system.”

When it comes to meat quality, tenderness depends on the stress level of the animal. When cattle become excited or overstressed in the slaughterhouse it increases the incidence of dark cutting. Dark cutting is when the meat appears to be very dark red or purple, and this is caused by changes in the pH, or acidity, of the muscles the animal. There is no real palatability problem with dark cutting, but consumers expect their raw meat to look of a certain quality, making dark meat unfavorable. Wendy Schneider, an Angus breeder out of Ardrossan, takes special precautions on her farm to prevent the occurrence of dark cutting. “We try to set up a time when the stress is minimal,” she says. “Because our animals are handled all the time, they are used to people and machinery. Also, we take our animals to a place where the abattoir is quiet and efficient.”

Alberta cattle are among the highest quality for beef on a global scale. Not only do breeding techniques continue to provide consumers with a top of the line product, but with a harmonized BSE prevention and control system in place Alberta beef remains some of the safest in the world. Consumers are now being given the option to purchase hormone free and chemically clean beef. There is no better time than now to put that red meat fear aside and grill up a nice juicy steak. Schneider agrees, “Albertans have the opportunity to eat some of the best tasting beef on a large scale. Beef is now produced with the best information and technology so you know you are getting a safe world recognized product.”

With all the health benefits that come with eating beef, we think it’s time to give red meat a second chance. For flavor, nutrition and safety, Alberta beef makes your grocers meat market look even better. So what are you waiting for? It’s time to fire up the barbeque.

-Carrah Bouma, Jessica Belyk and Amelia Towns

A little afterbirth snack

Potential motices of the placenta-eating cow   

Placentophagia, the act of eating placenta, is observed in many placental animals including cows. There is no single, definitive reason known for why cows eat their placenta but in searching for the answer we came across four main theories: bonding, hunger, predator avoidance, and instinct. After taking a closer look at the possible reasons why cows eat their placenta we contacted a number of producers, not only cattle but also swine, horse, and sheep producers to discuss what is done with the placenta on the farm and if placentophagia has ever caused any problems.

The idea that a cow eats her placenta as a means of bonding with her calf can probably be rejected. The placenta is released a few minutes to a few hours after the calf is born and it is not usually in contact with the calf. The idea of bonding may have arisen from confusing amniotic fluid which the newborn calf is covered in with the placenta. “Most cows will pay attention to the calf while eating their placenta”, says Murray Warnke, a beef cattle producer from Wetaskiwin, AB. “But some become focused on the placenta and ignore the calf.” In these cases, removing the placenta causes the cow to return her attention to her calf. This, in conjunction with the fact that the placenta is generally not in contact with the calf, opposes the idea of bonding as a reason for cows to eat their placenta.

The second theory, hunger, is divided into two categories: general and specific hunger. General hunger indicates that the cow is just plain hungry after calving. The fact that the placenta is edible, and generally in close proximity to the calf, makes it a convenient meal.

Specific hunger refers to a craving. This theory suggests that there may be something in the placenta, for example nutrients or hormones, that the cow craves post-partum. When asked if he had ever encountered a problem as a result of a cow eating her placenta, Alberta dairy farmer, Alex Beattie, responded that he had never encountered any problems but “some people believe that eating the placenta relaxes the cow and is good for the cow”. If we take into consideration the belief that placentophagia in humans helps prevent post-partum depression, placentophagia in cows may be beneficial to their psychological health and specific hunger may help them to obtain this benefit.

The third and most popular theory for why cows eat their placenta is predator avoidance. Veterinarian Dr. Jennifer Dodd admits that it is not a definite reason but describes it as “a defensive mechanism to ensure that there is no evidence of the birthing in order to protect against predators.”

The idea is that the cow eats her placenta so that the smell does not attract predators towards her and her very vulnerable calf.

The final theory concerning why cows eat their placenta, instinct, is mostly self-explanatory. They just do it, it’s instinctive. Remember, cows were not always domesticated and it is a fact that virtually all placental mammals eat their placenta with the exception of camels, Cetaceans (an order of aquatic mammals including whales and dolphins), and Pinnipeds (an order of semi-aquatic mammals including seals and walruses). Cows eating their placenta are not unique among placental mammals.

 

We corresponded with 16 livestock producers to discuss reasons for leaving or removing the placenta and potential problems resulting from allowing placentophagia. Compared with 17% of cattle producers who said they remove the placenta, 43% of other livestock producers (swine, horses, and sheep) said they remove the placenta; both for similar reasons. Overall, 11 of the producers indicated that they leave the placenta to be eaten for reasons including nutritional value, because it is natural for the animal, and/or because it is impractical to remove. The five producers who do remove the placenta said that they are doing so either to prevent attracting predators, prevent the animal from choking, and/or promote cleanliness and sanitation in the birthing area. Over 80% of the producers indicated that they have never encountered a problem as a direct result of an animal consuming her placenta (note that some of these animals were never exposed to a placenta). However, the remainder indicated encountering problems involving animals choking. In two of these cases, nothing came of the choking, it either righted itself or the producer was there to assist the animal; in the third case, two animals actually choked to death.

Weighing the costs and benefits of allowing a cow to eat her placenta comes down to the producer’s individual situation and experiences. In free-range operations for example it may not be practical to be out monitoring each and every calving in order to remove the placenta. Dr. Dodd says that “there may be some minor nutritional value including proteins in the placenta but the cow will survive well without eating it.” So for those who are choosing to- and able to- regularly remove the placenta, there are no detrimental effects associated with disallowing placentophagia.

So, why do cows eat their placenta? By eliminating bonding as a possible reason we have narrowed it down to three main theories; hunger, predator avoidance, and instinct. Each has its own appeal and all seem equally probable not only as a reason for cows but also for why other mammals eat their placenta. Suffice it to say that some combination of hunger, predator avoidance, and instinct drives cows to partake of the afterbirth snack.

Is an offal awful?

 

Would you be surprised to find that every day great quantities of tasty, nutritious foodstuffs suitable for human consumption are rendered and used in pet foods or for other low value products? That is exactly what happens to a great deal of the offal that Canada produces. Despite its name, offal is quite the opposite. Unfortunately due to a combination of preconceived ideas about its taste and texture, a lack of North American cultural exposure and consumers with limited knowledge of how to prepare it, offal has not managed to achieve the human consumption market that it could. Such a market would be a benefit to consumers looking for economical, healthy protein sources, as well as to producers and processors who presently end up getting little profit from the sale of offal. Consumer Arinna Grittani illustrates a popular misconception that the industry will have to disprove in order to change the image of offal, “If offal tasted better, I’d definitely eat it more, but I really don’t like the taste.” When quizzed further, Grittani admits that she has only sampled limited kinds of offal, and the taste among those has varied greatly.

Currently Mexico and Asia are the strongest markets for Canadian offal. The Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) crisis that struck the Canadian Beef industry had devastating consequences in the export of beef offal. Not only did huge markets such as the United States put a complete halt to imports of Canadian beef, Japan, a lucrative market for offal, also denied continued imports of Canadian offal. Beef exports to Japan remain closed, and while exports to the U.S. have resumed, the handling and export of offal has had certain restrictions placed on it. Specified Risk Materials (SRMs) must be removed from the carcass at the time of slaughter and disposed of. SRMs include the brain, eyes, tonsils, spinal cord and a portion of the small intestine that used to be commonly consumed in Eastern Europe. Not only does this mean certain types of offal are lost for export, there is also the added cost of the removal of the SRMs.

While North American consumption of offal has never been great, before BSE broke out internationally, offal was commonly consumed in Europe and Asia. The Europeans first started to eat offal out of necessity, which is why offal is also known as “poor food.” Over time offal became a common ingredient in a lot of European and Asian dishes, often being consumed as a delicacy. Edmonton Journal food columnist Judy Schultz comments on this evolution: “It is interesting to see how offal has moved up the food chain, from food for the poor, to being consumed, in some cases, by the very rich.” Fatty duck liver is used to make foie gras, while the thymus or pancreas of an animal can be used to make sweetbread. Tripe is a common component of Vietnamese pho noodles. Although offal is rooted in European and Asian cultures, spread of the popularity has been slow to reach most North Americans. The market of offal has been dampened by the outbreak of diseases, such as BSE and Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), but the main reason for the lack of human consumption is that North Americans do not know enough about offal, its uses and nutritional benefits.

Offal products are awfully healthy and nutritional. Offal dishes contain numerous essential dietary elements necessary for optimal health. Some offal is high in iron which is required for red blood cells to deliver oxygen throughout your body; iron is a great source of zinc which is important for growth, tissue repair and a properly functioning reproductive system. Offal also contains important B vitamins, especially Vitamin B12 – critical for the production and function of red blood cells and an efficient nervous system. The mineral selenium is found in offal and works together with antioxidant enzymes. Since offal is often organ meats, it contains a significant amount of protein that is essential for growth, repair and energy. In general, offal is a well balanced food that can be a great addition to a meal.

Likely the most common type of offal that people consume is liver. If prepared well, this is a delicious and nutritious treat. Liver is particularly high in Vitamin A, which is essential for healthy vision and aids in protein digestion. Liver is also high in Folate and in Vitamin D – necessary for strong bones and teeth.

If North Americans were aware that offal is commonly consumed in other cultures, and that it is an excellent nutrient source, would they be more receptive to regular consumption of heart, liver, tongue and other types of offal? The possibility for livestock producers to capitalize on the growing trends of both ethnic dining, and health consciousness, means that perhaps the future will see a thriving North American market for the human consumption of offal.

Ethnic markets, specialty grocery stores and farmer’s markets are all excellent sources for offal – either prepared or ready for you to take home and cook. Cultural cookbooks and the internet are both great places to find easy to use, nutritious recipes, so you can begin a lifetime of enjoying offal.

- Amy Messner, Kurt Preugschas and Dorcas Tang

Lippy animals

Are your lips getting dry and cracked from the cold, dry winter?
Maybe you should buy a sheep...It turns out animals can do more for your body then you think.

 

Recently we decided to do a research project on the animal byproducts that are found in lip gloss. We found that not everything in that lip gloss bottle of yours is synthetic. Numerous materials produced by animals such as caprylic acid, stearic acid, allantoin, and lanolin are regular products in everyday lip gloss. It turns our many farm animals end up making people look and/or feel better.

Despite goats reputation as trouble-makers, we’ve found that they can actually be very helpful in the healing and maintenance of human skin. A component of goat’s milk called caprylic acid is actually a common product in certain types of lip gloss and lip moisturizers. It has a very low pH which helps to maintain the mildly acidic outer layer of the skin which is produced naturally by healthy skin. Fortunately this layer functions as a barrier against bacteria. A key quality of caprylic acid it is quickly and easily absorbed by the skin providing the lips with essential proteins and minerals needed to stay healthy and soft.

Normally people wouldn’t want pig fat on their lips; however, stearic acid, a component of pig fat, is an ingredient of lip gloss. It is a white wax-like substance with an incredible affinity for water. Dr. Randall Weselake, Professor and Canada Research Chair, is an agricultural lipid biotechnologist at the University of Alberta. He says “stearic acid has water loving and fearing components. It has a carboxyl end which brings water to the lips and a long carbon chain end which repels water”. Its desire to attain water only assists in the maintenance of smooth, moist lips. When applied to lips, it provides texture and thickness making ones lips look voluptuous and irresistible.

How would you like to be kissed by someone with cow urine on their lips? Well, this may have taken place without you knowing. Allantoin, a component of cow urine is a common ingredient in lip gloss.

After a cow urinates, allantoin can be synthetically derived from the uric acid present in the urine. It works by rapidly producing healthy cells by depositing proteins directly on the dry, undesirable skin. Allantoin works excellently for wounds and sunburns, and heals, soothes and moisturizes chapped lips.

 

We found that one of the more commonly known cures for chapped lips is lanolin. Although most people have a basic understanding of lanolin’s importance and reoccurrence in cosmetics many would be shocked to discover its origin. Lanolin is a waste product in the wool processing industry and is universally known as wool fat, wool grease, or wool wax. This thick oily, yellow substance is a mixture of esters and cholesterols of several fatty acids and is secreted by a sheep’s sebaceous glands in the form of sebum. Lanolin is a product of the sebum, an oily substance that is composed of lipids and debris of dead lipid-producing cells. Sebaceous glands are found in the skin of mammals, more specifically in sheep’s skin, and it works in combination with the hair follicles to carry sebum to the skins surface. A sheep produces lanolin to help waterproof and protect its wool and skin from becoming dry, brittle and cracked.

We found answers to questions reader’s had no idea they even had. Waste products of animals are not always exactly waste products. They can be put to use in items such as lip gloss. On the basis of personal interest our research has succeeded in providing you with the knowledge that will last a lifetime.

-Marla Bohm, Robin Derfler and Joel Lamont

Do hens listen when a rooster crows?

 

You may know how annoying it is to be woken up at the crack of dawn by the rooster’s familiar crow but there is so much more to chickens than clucks and cock-a-doodles. Contrary to the traditional view of the simple-minded chicken, they do indeed, have a complex communication system. For example, the typical “cock-a-doodle-doo” is thought to be a call that tells other chickens about the individual’s social rank and is also used to claim territory. The hen listens to a rooster, especially when he has something useful to say, usually about food, mating, and danger. Humans should also listen to the rooster because “vocalizations can be an indicator or diagnostic tool for evaluating quality of welfare,” says Dr. Paul Siegel PhD (Animal and Poultry Sciences at Virginia Polytechnic and State University). So the next time you hear a rooster crow, do not think of him as another simple farm animal because he is probably saying something important.

Life, for all species, revolves around food and roosters use this to their advantage. They can produce characteristic food calls to get hens to approach, who find it hard to turn down the opportunity for a free meal. Roosters deliver many quick calls if favored food is found and make slower, less frequent calls if non-favored food is present. Hens are more likely to approach when good food, like mealworms and peas, are offered and are more likely to ignore the calls if the rooster finds lower quality food, like peanuts or nutshells. Roosters call more when hens are present but will call less if another male is around. Other males are just competition so sharing with them is not necessary. Basically, the rooster searches for food, calls the hens over, refrains from eating to let the hens have it, and in return, establishes social bonds with them. What a gentleman!

Have you ever seen a rooster waltz? He performs elaborate mating displays and dances that can also elicit a response from the hen. The “waltz” is a courtship dance where the male drops one wing and approaches the hens with short, shuffling side steps. Wing flapping, strutting, head shaking, feather-ruffling, tail-wagging, and a whining vocalization are also used to get the hen’s attention. The hen will either run away if she is not interested or crouch to allow the rooster to mate with her.

Hens, like most animals, are picky when it comes to mating and they will choose the rooster with the most desirable characteristics. Hens will mate with dominant males most of the time. Dominant males crow more than subordinates, crow at a higher frequency than subordinates, have a higher weight, and have the longest and brightest combs. Roosters guard their flocks and produce different types of alarm calls depending on whether a predator is in the air or on the ground. These calls are very different from one another and the hens respond by showing different types of behavior. Hens will crouch when given an aerial alarm call, whereas they will stand erect when given a ground alarm call. Even though hens respond to both types of calls by surveying the area, they are more likely to look upwards and run for cover when given an aerial call. In these types of circumstances, listening to the rooster may be vital for the hens’ survival.

It is known that chicken communication is beneficial to both the hens and roosters, but why should humans study chicken calls? Michelle Jendral is a graduate student from the University of Alberta, researching how different environments impact the quality of life for layer hens. She believes that “increasing our knowledge and understanding of behaviors, such as vocalizations, will improve our ability to assess welfare, and therefore clarify how welfare can be improved.” She also states that “since behavior is how animals cope with their environment, and many natural behaviors are affected by intensive housing systems, vocalizations (a behavior) are affected too.” Chickens show complex social organization, learning capabilities, and a diverse communication system; performing more than 30 vocalizations. We are starting to realize that chickens are smarter than we originally thought and welfare concerns pressure the poultry industry to provide mental stimulation in their current housing systems. Roosters do more than just cock-a-doodle-doo and wake you up in the morning. They will make different calls about food, mating, and danger which the hens will respond to. Therefore, hens do listen when a rooster crows.

- Gita Gunson, Steve Koeckhoven and Renee Leduc

The evolution of head cheese: everything but the squeal

 
What is head cheese? Head cheese – also known as brawn in England, Fromage de tête in France, and Hog’s head cheese or souse meat in Louisiana – certainly has made a name for itself all over the world, but how many people today actually know what head cheese is? Could it be losing its appeal as we become a society attracted to more healthy or value added food products? Or could head cheese be making a come back as an ethnic specialty? Head cheese is not actually cheese; but rather a terrine, which refers to food made in an earthenware cooking dish. It is formed as a loaf and sliced to be eaten on sandwiches or as an appetizer like other common cold cuts. It is flavoured a lot like pickles using various spices and vinegar, and has a very distinct taste and texture that seems to acquire a love or hate relationship with all those who try it.

 

Historically, it was produced on farms as a means to use all the variety meats generated by home slaughter. It can be made with a wide range of animals including sheep, calf, deer, and pig with the latter being the most common. The less desirable, but edible parts of the animals including the heads, hocks, tails, ears, and tongues are cleaned and slow cooked allowing all the tender meat to fall off the bones and a jelly-like substance to form. This gelatine layer is produced from the bone marrow of the animal. Frances Cove, an 86 year old Scottish/Irish descendent, used to make head cheese for her family many years ago. She would buy pork hocks because they were inexpensive and more affordable than good quality cuts. She would serve it to her family in sandwiches, but remembers that although she loved it, her kids hated it. Her husband Barney who worked at a butcher shop also made head cheese. His friends would bring him the deer they had hunted and he would use the unappetizing parts of the carcasses to make head cheese.

Today head cheese is not a favourite on the shopping list of youth. Many seem to only know about it if they have relatives who are from farms or various ethnic backgrounds who eat head cheese. We were assigned a project in a university animal science class to create a presentation about head cheese. During this presentation we offered a sample to our fellow classmates. They either refused to eat it or found it repulsive stating:

“The texture is gross.”

“I would rather eat cow feces.”

“I would only try it if I was dared.”

“I was too scared to try it.”

As well, most of the students had not heard of head cheese before and upon finding out the contents were discouraged from sampling it. However, currently, head cheese bought at a butcher shop or at the super market does not often contain the animal’s head or other more unappealing parts but rather, just includes the pig hocks.

We interviewed one of the employees at the Mundare Sausage House in Edmonton about their head cheese. He told us that Mundare uses only the pig’s hocks because it is better quality meat. The employee also told us that during Christmas their sales peaked at 600-700 . In general we found that most delis today sell head cheese as a specialty product. It seems there has been a shift in the production of head cheese from a dish made to use all the unwanted parts of slaughtered animals to a value added food product to be bought over the deli counter.

Today you can find head cheese at most supermarkets or delis. It is produced by big brand names such as Oscar Mayer and is commonly found on buffet-style cold cut platters. Head cheese isn’t all that uncommon, except among the younger generation. This suggests that maybe all head cheese needs to do to hold onto its place in society is proper marketing. Something geared towards younger age groups such as cheap luncheon meat for college students or fun jell-o meat for kids. Just imagine the next big Oscar Mayer advertisement –

“Oh I wish I were a block of head cheese That is what I’d truly like to be

‘Cause if I were a block of head cheese

Everyone would be in love with me...” If you are interested in trying head cheese just visit your local grocery store or deli or if you are adventurous enough to make it yourself visit www.cooks.com and enter head cheese to find lots of great recipes.

- Sarah Gaudette, Rosalyn Heller

 

Humane hamburgers

How much do fast food restraunts really care about the animals they serve?

 
If you asked children their favorite food, most would probably say a kid’s meal from a fast food restaurant would top the list. In a society where time has become a highly valued commodity, people are often looking for fast and relatively inexpensive places to eat. Last year alone, there was a 2.3 percent increase in the amount of food purchased from fast food restaurants in Canada. Recently, there has been an increase in public concern regarding how animals are treated. Some consumers are demanding that animal welfare standards be set and met by producers for the products they are purchasing, especially from fast food establishments.

Animal welfare concerns in the fast food industry first gained the public spotlight during the longest public relations trial in the UK’s history. Helen Steel and David Morris, two London Greenpeace activists, were sued by McDonalds for distributing pamphlets to consumers that were critical of the corporation. The trial lasted just over two years, ending when the judge ruled in favor of McDonalds. However, he did highly criticize McDonalds and stated that they were “...culpably responsible for cruel practices in the rearing and slaughter of some of the animals which are used to produce their food.” Consumers began to question animal welfare standards in the fast food industry, and soon demanded that changes be made.

McDonalds’ image suffered a major blow after the trial, so the company quickly responded to consumer demands. An animal welfare council, composed of six animal welfare experts, was hired, including the well-known animal behaviourist Dr. Temple Grandin. Since 1999, all beef, pork, chicken, and egg suppliers must be audited and adhere to set standards of animal welfare. In 2002 there were 500 audits conducted at processing facilities around the world. The standards of housing, handling, and humane slaughtering are all evaluated, and suppliers who do not meet standards will no longer be able to sell their product to these fast food restaurants. While most suppliers pass the audits, those that do not are given 30 days to make the necessary changes to reach McDonalds’ standards.

Soon after McDonalds made their own policies on animal welfare, its biggest competitors followed suit. Similar animal welfare councils have been formed by hiring numerous agricultural researchers and animal behaviourists to develop humane standards and review the effectiveness of changes made by suppliers. Performing standardized audits on their suppliers has become the norm. These audits follow the guidelines developed by Dr. Grandin, who has now also been hired as a consultant for both Wendys and Burger King. There have even been talks between companies to set industry-wide standards, likely through a third party system. “The leadership that has been shown in the past several years by fast food restaraunts with respect to standards for animal care has been remarkable,” says Dr. Craig Wilkinson, DVM and director of animal care for the Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Home Economics at the University of Alberta.

 
With dramatic changes in industry standards, suppliers have been forced to adopt their policies, raising questions about the costs. New housing and slaughter equipment does not come cheap. However, these investments are easily made up by increasing profits. Companies are paying more than ever for meat and eggs from humane suppliers. Research has also shown humane treatment of animals decreases injury/ bruising and mortality while improving meat quality and egg production. Susan Church, the general manager of Alberta Farm Animal Care (AFAC) agrees, as she has seen that “raising the standards, regarding animal welfare, has led to better quality products.” An increase in supply with better product quality leads to greater profits, which is enough reason in itself to treat animals humanely.

Enforcing standards has made a huge impact on animal welfare across North America. In 1996, audits were performed by Dr. Grandin and the USDA, and only 30% of beef plants were in compliance with American Meat Institute’s guidelines for stunning animals. Just 4 years later, after McDonalds became involved, this number skyrocketed to 74%, and continues to climb to this day. Dr. Grandin has stated “I have been working in the meat industry for more than 25 years and I saw more improvements in 1999 than I have seen in my entire career.” Consumers demanded standards, and fast food restaurants responded above and beyond expectations. This movement may very well be the first step towards improving standards for livestock from all suppliers, making our next hamburger meal a little easier to swallow.

- Lindsey Kurach, Jessica Lynch 

An eye for an eye?

Rib-eye vs. Eye-of-round

 

There are many different types of steak to choose from at the meat counter, and it can be difficult to decide which best suits your needs. Both the quality and cost of the cuts may influence your selection. Two cuts that sound similar are the rib-eye and eye-of-round steaks, but they are actually quite different. What allows the rib-eye to command almost twice the price per kilogram of eye-of-round?

Located above the rib cage, around the center of the back, the rib-eye is cut from the longissimus muscle group. The muscles in this group are used to support the animal. The support function of these muscles results in less connective tissue buildup than occurs in locomotion muscles. This makes the rib-eye very tender.

The bright red support muscles use fat as an energy source, and they are constantly burning this fat aerobically. This provides marbling, which is the fat dispersed throughout the muscle. Many people like to see lots of marbling in their steaks, as it is commonly believed that marbling increases tenderness, juiciness, and flavor. However, according to Dr. Mick Price, a professor of Livestock Growth and Meat Production at the University of Alberta, there is actually a low correlation between marbling and these desired meat traits.

The eye-of-round comes from low on the hind end of the animal. It is cut from the semitendinosus muscle, which is a locomotion muscle. Locomotion muscles use glycogen as an energy source more than fat, and they work anaerobically. Therefore, they do not have as much marbling as support muscles do, and they are not as bright in color. The lengthening and shortening of locomotion muscles causes connective tissues such as collagen and elastin to build up. Gristle that consumers may notice when preparing or eating meat is actually connective tissue from the muscles. Because movement muscles do not use as much fat in performing their functions, they are leaner than support muscles. Therefore, the eye-of-round is lower in calories than the rib-eye.

Proper preparation techniques are important for all meat, but particularly for cuts such as the eye-of-round. Marinating the eye-of- round and cooking it in moist, moderate heat breaks down the collagen, increases tenderness, and adds flavor. Many different marinades can be used, from a simple acid based marinade to a more complex recipe. According to Dr. Price, cooking with moisture can break down collagen, but no amount of cooking or marinating can break down the elastin tissue. This is one of the major limiting factors for the eating quality of eye-of-round cuts, as the elastin content of the semitendinosus muscle is higher than in cuts such as the rib-eye.

The rib-eye, with its finer texture and lower connective tissue content, can be grilled without marinating. This greatly reduces the preparation time, and this convenience factor may also contribute to the higher market price of rib-eye steaks. A meat cutter at an Edmonton grocery store has noticed that rib-eye steaks are much more popular than eye-of- round steaks at his store. He mentioned that some consumers find the eye-of-round dry and tough when they try to prepare it as they would a rib-eye steak.

 

Armed with these facts, next time you are standing in front of the meat counter you will know which of these cuts better fits your needs and preferences. For an economical, lower calorie, slow cooking meal, buy the eye-of-round. If you are planning a backyard barbeque, spring for the rib-eye. In either case, you are on your way to an enjoyable meal.

- Alex Clernett, Becky McCorkle

How do "ewe" become a foster mother?

 

While walking through your local sheep farm I’m sure the one thing everyone wonders is, “What happens to a lamb if her mother dies?” Lambing season is an important time for sheep producers. This is when the management of their operation is vital to the growth and maintenance of their flock. The health of the newborn lambs relies on how much milk the lamb receives. The milk that a ewe produces within the first 24 hours is vital to the survival of her offspring. This milk, called colostrum, is vital to the lamb’s growth. Producer’s sometimes face challenges with trying to get this milk into the lambs. When this happens they resort to cross fostering techniques to help them.

Cross fostering is when the farmer tries to get another ewe to accept the lamb. There are three reasons for trying to do this, they are: if the ewe dies, does not accept the lamb, or has too many lambs to provide the proper amount of milk for the lamb. Burt Ward, a sheep farmer and large animal veterinarian from Ontario, will only try to foster a lamb if he “has two or three [ewes] that have lambed on the same day”. Ward also adds that if he has a foster lamb to care for he will “use milk from another ewe to give to the orphan lamb if the ewe has lots of extra milk”.

Methods for cross fostering all have to do with scent. Some of the methods mask the scent of the foster lamb and other ways make it so that the ewe can’t smell the foster lamb. There are three ways that we found that do this. Hide replacement and stockings are used to cover the scent of the lamb and a head gate is used to prevent the ewe from smelling the lamb.

Hide replacement only works when a ewe has lost her lamb due to disease, weather conditions or a complication. The dead lamb is then skinned and the hide of the dead lamb is placed on the foster lamb. The hide is kept on the foster lamb until the ewe accepts that lamb. The ewe may accept this foreign lamb because she recognizes the scent. Ward explains that “over in Britain, on occasion, they will try the hide replacement method in areas where they have lambing at a specific time of year. When they have 600-700 ewes, they could have 50- 75 lambing a day. Usually they are with their mother only 24 hours, put back with the group for a day and then kicked back out to the grass. Time is off the essence for these people.”

Another method that masks the scent involves using stockings. This technique is used when a ewe only has one lamb of her own and is able to adopt another one. A nylon stocking is placed on the ewe’s own lamb after it has been born allowing the stocking to absorb the scent of that lamb. After a couple of days the stockings are removed and placed on the lamb that you are trying to foster; thereby, tricking the mother into thinking it is also her lamb. Once again, this method proves how scent plays a very important role in the bonding of the mother with offspring.

Some ewes may be persistent and are unable to be tricked as easily with scent; therefore, another method must be used. A head gate is a device that the ewe is placed in for a few days until she is familiar and used to the new lamb. The head gate restricts the ewe from turning around, bunting or pushing the lamb away. She is able to stand, lie down, eat and drink freely. The foreign lamb is still able to receive the nutrients and care needed for its growth and development.

If a sheep producer has tried all three of these methods and none have been successful then they will simply bottle feed their foster lamb. This method is used when a lamb will not suck off of a ewe or a ewe will not accept the lamb. Burt Ward would not normally try using these methods of cross-fostering a lamb, even though they are available because he feels they are “not worth the aggravation” and are “too much trouble”. Overall the decision of whether or not to try and foster a lamb onto a ewe “depends on different people’s operations” but Ward thinks that possibly sheep farmers in Canada are not doing this because “people here are breeding for Easter and Christmas market and so are not lambing all at once”.

So if you come upon a situation where one of your lamb’s mother’s has died and the lamb needs its essential colostrum from the milk, not to worry, you have some choices. First, you can put the ewe into a head gate so the foster lamb is free to suck from the ewe without getting bunting or rejecting it. Second, if one of your ewes’ lambs have died then you can skin that lamb and put the skin on your foster lamb so that foster lamb smells like the ewe’s original lamb, called hide replacement. Third, if a ewe only has one lamb then put stocking on the lamb right after it is born. Then you take those stockings and place them on the legs of your foster lamb, masking his scent with the smell of the lamb’s ewe. Lastly, either after all else has failed, or in the first place, you could simply bottle feed the foster lamb yourself. That is how “ewe” become a foster mother!

- Kevin Becker, Magaret Keeler, Sasha Kroffat

Bloody eggs!

Are blood spots in eggs developing into chicks?

 

As the fear of fat recedes, and the danger of carbohydrates looms on the horizon, the consumption of eggs is rising. Increasing consumption is followed by increasing questions and concerns about the commercial supply of eggs. One of these concerns regards the existence of blood spots. Many people believe that the presence of a blood spot indicates the beginning of a young chicken. A little known fact is that eggs sold for consumption are usually infertile. According to Dr. Frank Robinson, Associate Dean of the Faculty of Agriculture at the University of Alberta, “The average person is probably unaware that hens can lay an egg without knowing a rooster at all.” Without the hens being bred, the eggs produced by a chicken are not fertile, and cannot develop into chicks. Another concern is that these eggs are unsafe to eat. This is also untrue. Blood spots are not an indicator of egg contamination.

So what are blood spots? The female chicken’s reproductive system contains one ovary and an oviduct, which provide the machinery to form eggs. The yolk is the ovum that is released from the ovary. It passes down the oviduct and is coated in albumen (egg white). Near the end of the oviduct the shell is formed over the egg and then it is laid. Before it is released from the ovary (a process called ovulation), the yolk grows inside a membrane called the follicle wall. This covering ruptures releases the yolk by splitting along a line called the stigma. Normally this line is avascular, meaning that it contains no blood vessels. If there is a vessel crossing this line, it will rupture when the yolk is released. A small amount of blood will adhere to the yolk while the rest of the egg forms over it.

In commercial egg layers, the incidence of blood spots is directly related to the stress level of the laying hens. Stress factors include sudden loud noises, inappropriate housing, feed and water regimes. Careful management prevents most of these stress factors. “Some producers play soft music in their barns to dampen outside noises” states Dr. Robinson. Other factors that may affect the incidence of blood spots include activity level, age, vitamin balance and genetics. There is a slightly higher incidence of blood spots laid in brown eggs. Some research on this topic is being done at the University of Alberta. One study suggests that hens which lay brown eggs produce 25 times more blood spots. Through selection, the levels of blood spots are being reduced in all strains of laying hens. According to Dr. George Ansah, lead geneticist for Hubbard ISA, “All breeding programs in Canada focus on improving internal egg quality in both brown and white egg layers. Genetic selection of hens is one way of improving the final product for the consumer.”

Management and selection greatly reduce the already low level of naturally occurring blood spots, however, there is another reason that very few blood spots are found in commercial eggs. After eggs are collected from the hens, they are moved along a conveyor belt over a very bright light in a process known as candling. The light penetrates the shell and glows through, allowing a spotter to see any defects inside the egg. If a meat spot or a blood spot is seen, the egg is removed from the production line or downgraded to “B”. “Few grade B eggs get to grocery store level. For the most part, such eggs go to further processing – for use in other products requiring eggs” asserts Brenda White of the Alberta Egg Producer’s Board. In brown eggs small blood spots are more difficult to see because the light shining through the shell glows red.

The brown egg market is still small compared to the standard white egg market. Recently it is also losing ground to specialty eggs. Brenda White stated, “For the first time ever in the many years that this research has been done omega-3 eggs were the number two most purchased egg choice of Albertans, positioning brown shelled eggs to third place.”

Eggs with blood spots are removed because they are unappealing to the consumer, not because they pose a health risk. A contaminated egg will generally look perfectly normal, while one with a defect may be safe. The best way to prevent egg-born illness is to properly handle and cook eggs before eating them. Most egg born illness are actually picked up by cross-contamination in the kitchen. Those human illnesses that can be transmitted directly from the hen are destroyed by cooking. If a spot is unappealing, it can be removed easily with the tip of a clean knife before the egg is cooked.

Blood spots naturally occur at a low level as a consequence of the way eggs are formed within the hen. They do not represent the beginning of chick development. In fact, the hens that produce commercially marketed egg are not bred. The eggs they lay areusually infertile and could never mature into chicks. The exception is when there is an over abundance of hatching eggs, and some of these eggs may end up in the table egg market.

- Ken Lopes, Ken Schur, Chelsea Whittaker

Acid Indigestion...a common occurance

 

Super-kala-fragilistic-lactic acidosis. No, no! Don’t worry, lactic acidosis, also known as simply acid indigestion or grain overload, is really not that complicated! Acidosis is a fairly straightforward condition that is rather common in cattle. The disease is easily explained, and it is important for cattle owners to understand, know what the symptoms are, and how to prevent the disease all together.

Acid indigestion results when ruminant animals (cattle, sheep, goats) consume large amounts of grain which their stomach is not used to. Bacteria in the rumen ferment the grain and finely ground carbohydrates very quickly. This process produces a large amount of lactic acid, which in turn, lowers the pH in the rumen, and a low pH is not good! It means that the rumen is dangerously acidic. There are many effects to the animal when the pH drops. To understand the effects, however, one must know how the rumen works...

 

The rumen is the first and largest of the four compartments of a ruminant’s stomach. Here’s how it works: it houses many anaerobic bacteria that are capable of breaking down complex carbohydrates in order to synthesize nutrients for use by the animal.

When acidosis occurs there are less useful bacteria to break down the grain and there is also an increase in the amount of acid-producing bacteria. This will cause the rumen to stop producing nutrients from the feed and will instead produce lactic acid. Lactic acid extracts fluid into the rumen from the tissues and blood, causing major dehydration.

The most common cause of acidosis in cattle is a diet too high in fermentable carbohydrates, which would be a diet high in grain or pellets, which leads to the imbalance of lactic acid metabolism, or simply a diet with too high of a concentration of carbohydrates to forage ratio. It makes sense when one considers that cattle naturally eat forages, such as grass and legumes, in the wild. So their digestive tracts are not cut out to handle fast changes in diet to something like grain. A fast change in diet from high forage to high grain content also typically results in grain overload. A sudden switch from a diet consisting of silage to one of high levels of green chopped forage can induce similar results.

Another factor that commonly leads to lactic acidosis is having diets that are too low in fibre or that are too small in particle size. If animals don’t have to chew their cud as extensively as normal, saliva production will be less, and consequently will contribute to an acidic rumen. This is because saliva contains a natural buffer which helps counteract a low pH.

Diets consisting of very wet and fermented feeds are also known to be a potentially responsible factor. Furthermore, some mycotoxins have been found to play a role in some acidosis cases. Mycotoxins are fungal toxins that are produced by fungi growing on plants that can contaminate hay.

There are many methods to treat cattle that have developed acidosis. When cattle develop acidosis the first step that is required is to slow down fermentation in the rumen. This is done by removing the excess grain from the stomach, restricting the water intake, feeding hay or other long-stemmed roughage and by exercise. Dr. Wilkinson, a Professor and a Veterinarin at the University of Alberta, recommends using rumen stimulants. Buffers such as sodium bicarbonate can help the rumen return to normal more quickly. Cattle showing mild or moderate signs of acidosis can be given laxatives to encourage defecation and antacids to raise the pH of the stomach. Also, if the animal is dehydrated intravenous fluids can be given. In severe cases fermentation in the rumen can only be controlled by immediate removal of the grain. One method of removing the grain is by rumen lavage. This is done by pumping water into the rumen by passing a tube down the animal’s throat and then when the stomach is full disconnect the tube and allow the stomach contents to drain. In severe cases of acidosis the animal may die.

To prevent acidosis from occurring in cattle and other ruminants the diet of the animals need to be carefully regulated. Delma and Volk, a rancher from southern Alberta says “By careful feed management for your cattle, you can control the occurrence of acidosis within your herd.” If the diet has a high carbohydrate content the feed will need to be introduced gradually. This means when switching from forage to grain the cattle will need to be gradually introduced to the grain so their stomach has time to adjust to the increase in carbohydrates. The feed should also contain a minimum of 15% roughage to encourage cud chewing and saliva production. To help prevent acidosis from happening there are many additives that can be added when switching to feed rations that are high in carbohydrates. These additives are usually added to the feed for the first few weeks of the new feed introduction and then are removed from the ration after the cattle have been given time to be accustomed to the new feed.

It is very important for ranchers to understand lactic acidosis seeing it is a common occurrence in cattle and other ruminant animals. Acidosis can happen easily if feed is mismanaged. By proper feed management, acidosis can be prevented; this will lead to an increase in herd health, which in the end is money in your pocket.

-Emma Davis, Lisa Hickman, Brad Jones

Are rodeo bulls angry because they are treated badly at home?

 

There are millions of people around the world who attend rodeo events annually. After watching the bull riders, many people wonder, “Why are those bulls so angry?” Some people jump to the conclusion that the animals must be mistreated in order to buck with such fervour. In reality, the bulls are naturally aggressive due to the chemistry in their brains.

A bull’s strength and aggression is caused by substances such as testosterone in its body. Testosterone is a hormone that is primarily responsible for the development of secondary male characteristics, such as increased muscle and bone mass, and aggressive behaviours. There are other compounds in the brain that can be linked to aggression. These neuropeptides are chemical messengers that cause aggressive behaviours and higher pain tolerance.

Bulls are herd animals, and some of these behaviours are often used when attempting to obtain mates. In a bovine herd, there is often one mature bull that breeds with and defends many cows. In nature, bulls challenge and fight each other for the position of stud animal. The winner is the strongest, most aggressive animal whose genes will be passed on to the offspring. He is also the most capable of defending his herd from predators and other bulls vying for his position. Therefore, bulls developed aggressive tendencies in nature long before cowboys jumped on their backs.

Bucking behaviours are linked to predator evasion. When a bull is attacked, the predator initially attacks the bull’s flank. These areas contain the muscles that are needed to run. When these muscles are damaged, the animal is no longer able to flee, which then makes it easier for predators to kill. Bulls buck to dislodge their assailants from their flanks.

 

This natural instinct is exploited at rodeos by use of the flank strap. This leather strap wraps around the bull’s abdomen and causes the bull to buck higher. This results in a better show for the audience and more of a challenge for the cowboys. The higher bucking does not (contrary to popular belief) wrap around the testicles, since the testicles are located further back. Cowboys also use a bull rope, which wraps around the shoulders of the bull. This gives them something to hold on to and allows them some chance of staying on the bull for 8 seconds. Cowboys also use spurs. These are used a bit for grip, but are mostly for show. The ends must be rounded off for the bull’s safety, or the cowboy could be disqualified.

Bulls are bred to buck. Breeders mate aggressive animals because the offspring of these animals tend to be more aggressive. Aggressive bulls are highly sought by rodeo associations and, therefore, the more feisty animals are sold for exorbitant prices. This creates generations of bulls that have been selected for their ability to buck and for their aggressive tendencies.

Rodeo bull aggression is often thought to be caused by inhumane housing and animal abuse. The welfare of the bulls is actually very important economically. Top quality bulls are expensive to buy; therefore, they are given the best feed and veterinary care to ensure their health and longevity. This ensures that bulls are able to perform at their peak and earn the fame necessary to create demand for their offspring.

There are many factors that promote a bull’s aggressive behaviour. Testosterone creates strong, aggressive bulls needed for the guarding of herds of cows. Cowboys use equipment to manipulate predator evasion tactics used by the bull to encourage bucking. Bull breeding programs focus on the continuation of these aggressive traits in their lines. Bulls are not angry because they are treated badly at home; rather, there are many reasons for their aggression.

- Savannah Howse-Smith, Charlene L'Heureux, Leah Predy and Chris Sauve

Eggs: effective, essential...engineered?

 

Eggs simple, easy, versatile ... life saving? How can an egg save your life? In addition to the nutrients and vitamins they already contain, eggs have essential compounds in them called Omega-3 fatty acids. The amount that’s actually in eggs is quite small, but when they’re enriched it increases to a quantity high enough to satisfy our body’s needs. Omega-3s have an amazing effect on the human body: they lower the risk of heart disease, stroke, and breast cancer over time—and they’re extremely easy to get, for both people and chickens.

Humans require 1.35g of Omega-3 fatty acids daily: we can’t make or store them on our own, which means that we need to get a little creative. Unfortunately, the options are limited to various food sources (including leafy green vegetables, cold-water fish, flaxseed, and enriched eggs) and capsule supplements. Some of these sources are not as practical as eggs due to the rising risk of mercury poison in fish, personal preference, allergies, cost, and the fact that the human stomach has difficulty digesting flaxseed. An interesting fact about the intake of Omega-3s is that another essential fatty acid family, Omega-6s, plays a key role in how much Omega-3s an individual requires. A healthy balance of the two is a 1:1 ratio, but due to the fact Omega-6s are found in a wider variety of foods the current ratio for most people sits at 1 Omega-3 for every 50 Omega-6s. This is a startling realization that is beginning to be linked to blood clots, constricted arteries, and other health problems. Thankfully, Omega-3s are available to the public in a source that’s very easy to incorporate into any meal: enriched eggs.

When it comes to actually eating eggs, however, one or two isn’t enough. Omega-3s occur in eggs naturally, but in so small of an amount that one would have to eat 10 to 12 eggs a day to get the recommended daily intake of 1.35 grams. One of the easiest solutions to this problem lies in enriched eggs: eating just six of them a week will fulfill the body’s requirements and then some. Finding them in a supermarket, however, might prove a bit more of a challenge with the rising market demand for value-added products. A young consumer, Cody Anderson, 19, had no idea what he was getting into when he decided he wanted to try Omega-3 eggs: “You’d think that if they’re so popular, Edmonton would be better stocked – it took me forever to find one carton!”

Although Omega-3 fatty acids are present in eggs in a low concentration, they can easily be increased by the incorporation of a higher percentage of flaxseed in a hen’s diet: a 20% increase in flax boosts the Omega-3 production by almost 10%. There’s no genetic engineering, drugs, or medical intervention required, making eggs a safe and easily obtainable source of Omega-3s: just 3 enriched breakfasts a week and the body will have what it needs.

Going out of the way to obtain these nutrients is not without its rewards, of course: Omega-3s help prevent breast and prostate cancer, reduce the risks of heart disease and stroke, improve memory and concentration skills, and provide anti-inflammatory benefits. There are also some clinical trials being done to test the theory that Omega-3’s are important for neo-natal development. Yanning Peng a market analyst of consumer demand at Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development stated that, “approximately 10% of the eggs produced in Canada are enriched and this number is likely to rise as people learn more about the benefits of Omega-3 fatty acids.” Of course, the risks that come with these fatty acids are basically the same as those for all vitamins: you abuse, you lose. Too high a concentration of Omega-3s (over three grams a day) can cause immune suppression, heightened cholesterol, and an increased risk of hemorrhagic stroke.

Overall, Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids can be easily obtained, and a diet that includes the proper amount is not hard to formulate. They provide us with incredible benefits that can’t be found in any other substance, and they do it without the aid of any kind of genetic or medicinal alterations. Since they’re essential for the body, it’s just as well that we can get them without much difficulty and enjoy our breakfast in the process.

- Lacey Fowler, Lauren Murdock, Peter Rollheiser and Meredith Wasney

What can molasses do for your silage pit?

 

When you think of molasses you probably think of baking and of the sweet treats Mom used to make, but molasses can also be useful in the preparation and storage of silage. Molasses can be mixed into silage as an additive to make up for low levels of carbohydrates or it can be poured on as a cover for open silage pits to help prevent spoilage. In either case the addition of molasses can make the silage into more useful and higher quality feed.

 

Most silage starts out as a crop that is partially ripened. Ideally, the crop is cut and chopped when its moisture content is between 60 and 70%. Barley, oats, wheat, alfalfa, corn, as well as various grasses and legumes are all commonly used to make silage. Once it’s cut and chopped, silage is stored in large open pits, silage bags, or the distinctive, tall concrete or steel towers that identify many farms. The whole point of making silage is to store the extra feed that is available at some times of the year for times in the year when feed is not as readily available. This means stockpiled silage must still be a useful feed product after many months of storage.

When silage is stored it is compacted and covered so that very little air gets in. This deprives naturally occurring bacteria of oxygen and causes them to break down some of the fermentable carbohydrates in the silage anaerobically. That means they consume sugars in the silage to live but without oxygen. The products of this reaction are lactic acid and acetic acid. When silage is first stored it has a mildly acidic pH of about 6.5. Within about 21 days the acid production of the bacteria makes the pH of the silage too acidic for them to live in. The bacteria become inactive and stop producing acid when the pH reaches about 4.0. At this point the pH will remain stable and unless something happens that changes the pH of the silage very little of it will spoil. Most of the organisms that cause silage to decompose cease to operate under these conditions. This allows the silage to be stored for months at a time.

 
One problem with many types of silage is they contain a low concentration of easily fermentable carbohydrates. The bacteria that produce lactic acid are unable to operate well if there isn’t a good supply of simple sugars. This is a common problem in silage made out of grasses such as alfalfa that contain large amounts of cellulose, a complex carbohydrate, and not a lot of simple sugars like the starch in corn or other grain silage. Decreased lactic acid production gives destructive bacteria a chance to break down the silage before the pH becomes low enough to stop them. As well, some of these bacteria produce butyric acid, a product that gives poor quality silage a distinctive sour smell and taste.

Molasses makes a great additive for silage because it has exactly what lactic acid bacteria need – easily fermentable carbohydrates. The large amount of energy contained in molasses provides additional fuel for lactic acid production and increases the overall food energy content of the silage. As an additional benefit molasses also contains 3-5% protein and a number of essential nutrients including: potassium, sulphur, iron, and manganese.

Getting to the right pH is only part of the problem; the low pH needs to be maintained to keep the silage from spoiling. Compacting silage isolates the lower layers of silage from outside air but the top layer can still spoil due to the availability of oxygen for the bacteria contained within. Rainwater can also cause problems by neutralizing the acidic conditions created within the silage. To solve these two problems silage is usually covered and sealed from the environment. Molasses can help with this. Spreading a thin layer of molasses over stockpiled silage forms a barrier between the silage and the environment. Compared to leaving silage uncovered just a 1⁄2” of molasses can reduce spoilage by up to 50%. Using molasses as a cover also doesn’t create any waste because it remains as part of the feed when the silage is used.

So in conclusion: Molasses doesn’t just make great tasting cookies. It can help you make better silage too.

- Marlee Dunlop, Charles Mckay, Trevor Sheehan

Oh, sweet milk letdown

How many four-litre jugs of milk can a cow produce in a day?

 
Got milk? Bessie does–a lot of it. How much depends on many different factors, ranging from environmental to anatomical.

Bessie is an average Holstein cow from Alberta. She has a calf and milks for 305 days of the year. Her maximum milk production occurs around two and a half months from the beginning of her milk cycle. At this peak she may be able to produce as much as 45–50 litres of milk a day.

 

According to Mike Murphy, a dairy farmer from Calmar, Alberta, one of “[his] cows milked out 55 litres during her peak lactation.” Milk production then declines steadily to an average of 28 litres per day before entering her dry period on day 305. Bessie can be milked two or three times each day depending on the personal preference of the farmer. Michael Lovich, a dairy farmer from Sangudo, Alberta, states that he “prefer[s] to milk [his] cows two times each day but if [he] had the help [he] would milk them three times each day for an approximately 15 percent increase in milk production.” He claims that milking two times a day can cause more stress on the udder as it would be fuller than if you milked three times a day.

Farmers often wonder what affects the milk production of their cows. An important factor is the type of food Bessie eats. A lactating cow that is fed a total mixed ration will usually have higher milk production compared to one that is fed only grain or pasture. The total mixed ration consists of vitamin and nutrient additives as well as the basic protein and fibre needs of a cow. Diet affects milk production, as does body condition score (BCS). If Bessie has an ideal body condition score she will be able to produce a larger quantity of milk than if she did not. In addition to feed and BCS, age also affects Bessie’s ability to produce milk. The average dairy producer allows a cow to continue milk production for 3-4 years. A cow produces the most in her third lactation with a steady decline thereafter.

Older cows are also more susceptible to infections of the udder. Mastitis is an inflammation of the tissues of the udder, measured by the somatic cell count. Mastitis is common in bacteria-ridden barns and produces thicker milk with a yellow tinge. But don’t worry, this milk is not going to end up in your cereal.

Sanitation in the dairy industry is extremely important. One way that farmers ensure the safety of our milk is by dipping the teats before and after milking in a liquid solution of iodine. Once the teats are pre- dipped, the farmer will wipe them clean with a cloth and attach the robotic milkers. This routine of pre-dipping also helps to stimulate the letdown of milk. The hormone that controls this milk letdown is oxytocin, which is released from the anterior pituitary gland in the brain.

So do you think that you could drink all of the milk one cow produces in a day? Not unless you are really thirsty. On average a cow will produce 28 litres of milk in one day, which is seven four-litre jugs of milk or 112 glasses. However, during peak production times, 45–50 litres of milk are produced in one day. That can be converted to 11–12 four-litre jugs or 180–200 glasses. That is why everyone can get the wholesome goodness of milk at a fair price, and will be able to for years to come.

- Carmen Bell, Fawn Jackson and Jake Murphy

Why do 10 million women ingest horse urine each year?

 

Approximately 5000 North American women enter menopause each day. Of these women, one out of six will be prescribed a premarin product. Even fewer will know that premarin is made from pregnant mare’s urine (PMU). Hot flashes, mood swings, irritability, depression, weight gain, night sweats and loss of libido are realities for these women. Premarin is one of the most effective hormone therapy drugs available for menopausal women. What sets premarin apart from synthetic forms of estrogen replacement is that the active ingredient is conjugated equine estrogens obtained from an all-natural source. 

Premarin is the third most commonly prescribed drug in the world, and the single most commonly prescribed hormone therapy drug. It is available in both pill and topical cream form. Manufactured exclusively by Wyeth-Ayerst, premarin also helps to prevent osteoporosis. The side effects of Premarin include increased risks of heart attack, uterine cancer, blood clots and stroke.

PMU contains several different estrogens, the most abundant being estrone, which is common to both horses and humans. During the mare’s gestation period estrone is present in concentrations of 0.9 grams per litre of urine. Mares are impregnated in late June or early July. When they are 115-125 days pregnant urine collection begins, and continues for an additional 150-160 days, ending in March. Estrone concentrations are highest from 100-120 days after collection first begins.

During urine collection the mares remain indoors and are fitted with UCDs (urine collection devices). The UCDs are loose fitting, lightweight and flexible, and allow the mares a full range of movement and the ability to lie down comfortably. The Recommended Code of Practice For The Care and Handling of Horses in PMU Operations ensures that PMU ranchers maintain high quality nutrition, veterinary care, and exercise routines for their mares. Dr. Susan Novack, an equine research scientist with Alberta Agriculture, explained that “PMU operations are held to the highest standards, to a very detailed Code of Practice” and that “PMU operations ... have exceptional facilities.”

The foals that arrive in the spring each year are sold as recreation, ranch, show and competition horses. Some may also be sold for meat overseas, while others remain in PMU operations as replacement brood mares.

Once collected, the urine goes through a 125 step process to produce the final product. An average mare will produce 340 – 380 litres of urine during the collection period, or 1.9-2.8 litres a day. At a concentration of 0.9 grams of estrone per litre of urine, a 0.625 mg pill contains approximately 0.69 ml of pregnant mare’s urine.

So if you are one of the 10 million women taking Premarin, at the standard dose of one pill a day, you will have consumed the equivalent of just over one cup (253 ml) of pregnant mare’s urine in one year.

- Sheila Allen, Trevor Birchall, Nick Pentz and Jenna Porisky

 

Bigger isn't always better- inside out ovaries in horses

 

Men are from Mars, and horses are from Venus. No no, horses are not aliens. However, the structure and behavior of their ovaries is like nothing else on earth. Due to the mysterious wonders of evolution, horses have evolved many unique characteristics. Horses cannot vomit, their ovaries appear to be inside-out and they have some of the largest follicles of all mammals. These characteristics are just some of the strange and fascinating qualities of the horse’s reproductive system.

Follicles are the sack-like structures of the female ovary where eggs grow and mature. In human ovaries the follicle grows on the outside of the ovary; however, in mares the follicle grows deep within the organ. Since the follicle grows near the middle, in order for it to be released the ovary must remodel itself. The follicle is released through the ovulation fossa, causing no harm to the surface of the ovary. The large size of the follicle gives no structural advantage, if anything it makes ovulation more difficult. 

 

Mare’s ovaries appear to be inside-out compared to those of humans. Like a shirt inside-out still keeps you warm, an ovary inside-out still functions. In human ovaries, the outermost part consists of the cortex and the inner part the medulla; in the mare, the medulla surrounds the cortex, while the ovulation fossa is located in the center of the ovary. The ovulation fossa allows the ovary to still ovulate; therefore, the internal structure has little effect on the organism’s ability to reproduce. Fertilization occurs in the oviduct. Humans experience symptoms of pregnancy such as morning sickness shortly after fertilization.

 There is a one-way valve between the stomach and the esophagus of both the human and the horse that prevents food that is already in the stomach from going back up. In humans this valve doesn’t always work, while in horses the power of this valve makes it physically impossible for the horse to vomit. Hence, in a horse the stomach will rupture before the valve gives in. This results in colic, which is severe abdominal pain caused from an extreme build-up of food, acid and gas in the intestines. As a result of this powerful one-way valve a mare will not show symptoms of morning sickness during pregnancy.

The mare is designed to support only one fetus; however, this doesn’t mean that twinning will never occur. It occurs only rarely, when multiple ovulations happen from either one or both follicles. When two foals are born they tend to be considerably smaller and less developed, which often results in the death of both foals. Quite often humans take ovulation- enhancement drugs which cause rapid release of eggs during ovulation. This increases the chance of getting pregnant since it is more likely that an egg will be in the fallopian tube when the deposit is made. It also increases the likelihood of twins, triplets, even octuplets, for the ovary will release more eggs. However, these ovulation promoting drugs have little effect on horses.

The mysterious ways of evolution have made reproduction in horses a distinctively unique process. While very different from a human, the mare's reproduction is every bit as functional. The inside-out ovary, when compared to the ovary of a human, makes ovulation of one of the largest follicles in the animal kingdom a miraculous feat. The whole interior of the ovary is forced to rearrange itself in order to let the follicle move to the surface and be released. Once fertilization occurs, morning sickness can not be used as a determinant for pregnancy for one of the main symptoms of the sickness, vomiting, does not happen in horses. So horses really aren’t from Mars or Venus. Their basic ovulatory cycle makes them as down to earth as every other mammal.

 - Christina Carley, Mike Mielke and Janine Swenson

Is fibre your friend?

It is if you are a cow or horse but is it for a human and pig?

Have you ever wondered why horses and cows are fed high fibre diets while humans and pigs are not? Different species of mammals have different dietary needs. Fibre is the primary diet of cows and horsesbut a diet of fibre is not sufficient to meet the dietary needs of pigs and humans. Fibre is a part of food that serves many different purposes, depending on the species. Due to the different digestive capabilities of these animals, some can fully digest it while others cannot. 

Cattle have the ability to digest fibre. Their digestive system includes a four-chambered stomach, small intestine, cecum, and large intestine. First, cows regurgitate and chew their food many times to decrease the particle size. This is commonly known as chewing its cud. Smaller particles are easier for microbes to break down. The digestion process starts in the rumen, where microbes break down the fibre into fatty acids. These fatty acids can then be absorbed into the blood stream and used for energy. Cows need a diet composed mainly of fibre in order to stay healthy. 

The horse is known as a pseudo-ruminant monogastric. This means that they have a simple stomach and that the majority of digestion takes place in the cecum. The cecum in a horse acts like the rumen in cattle. Horses are also hind-gut fermentors as the majority of digestion takes place after the stomach. Fibre can be digested by horses since they have a large microbial population in the cecum. Dr. Susan Novak, an equine research scientist states that “it is through the fermentation of fibre that the horse gets 75% of its energy, and thus fibre is very important.” 

The horse’s cecum is very large compared to the cecum in the cow and the pig. The microbes in the horse’s cecum are able to produce cellulase, the main enzyme used to break down plant fibre. According to Dr. Novak “The fermentation of fibres is achieved by the microorganisms and bacteria that are in the hindgut, because horses lack the enzyme cellulase needed to digest cellulose (fibre). However bacteria have it. Thus we need to ‘feed the bugs’ when feeding the horse to ensure that the bacteria are healthy and happy to do their job and provide energy (and vitamins) for the horse. The bacteria need a constant source of highly digestible fibre to thrive.” Without cellulase the horse would be unable to digest the large amount of fibre in its diet. 

The pig has a monogastric digestive system, meaning that it has only one stomach. Unlike cows and horses, a pig must eat grain as opposed to hay because it can be more easily digested. There are five parts to the pig’s digestive system: mouth, esophagus, stomach and, small and large intestine. In the stomach, chemicals continue the breakdown of foods after saliva has started the process. At the beginning of the large intestine, there is a cecum which is of little importance in the pig’s digestive process. Therefore the pig has a very limited capacity for digesting fibre. This is due to the small amount of cellulase-producing bacteria in the pigs digestive system. If a pig eats a diet too high in fibre it will have problems gaining weight.

Much like pigs, the human has a simple digestive system with a basic stomach and a small, and large intestine. Most digestion takes place after the stomach in the small intestine where carbohydrates and proteins are further broken down and absorbed. However, humans lack the ability to digest fibre efficiently because they do not have the  necessary bacteria in their body to produce cellulase.

Cellulase breaks down cellulose in the rumen of cattle and in the cecum of monogastric animals. Cellulose cannot be easily broken down by regular enzymes in the digestive tract of humans. Thus, humans are unable to completely  digest and get nutrients from fibre. Humans have neither a functioning cecum nor a rumen so most fibre is passed out of the body as a waste product.

Cows and horses have the ability to digest fibre successfully while pigs and humans can digest a limited amount. The bacteria in the cecum and rumen have the ability to produce cellulase which is the key to fibre breakdown. The lack of bacterial cultures producing cellulase means that humans and pigs should limit their intake of fibre. Cows and horses need fibre for nutritional value while humans and pigs have different dietary needs.

Dr. Jerome Martin, a ruminant nutritionist says that “ruminants can use forages and fibre of varying quality ranging from high quality hay to mature grass and straw. Without ruminants we would be unable to make use of agricultural wastes or the forage that grows on hillsides and other areas that cannot be cultivated.” Because these animals can  make use of the forages that humans cannot they are an invaluable resource to humans. Dr. Martin added that “ruminants can create high quality products (meat, milk and wool) from low quality, waste material,” making them a very important resource.

Fibre is not as good a friend to pigs and humans as it is to horses and cows in a diet, but benefits all in different ways.

-Breanna Kelley, Devin Knopp, Catherine Poirier and Shauna Ritchie

Lets get ready to suckle!

 

The quiet of the day is broken by the short low grunts of a sow that has recently given birth. This is followed by the squealing of the piglets and a wrestling match for a place to eat. It could be compared to a wrestling match gone awry at a World Wrestling Entertainment event. The winner of the wrestling matches gets a better place on the underline of the sow. It looks and sounds painful but it is an important part of a piglet’s growth.

The crates that sows are kept in are not painful either: these are farrowing crates where the sows are put before giving birth. The crate is used to increase the survival rate of all the piglets in the litter. It stops the sow from laying on her piglets and squishing them. It gives the piglets a warm place to sleep out of harm's way and the sow has a cooler place to relax.

The sow has teats running parallel along the underside of her belly and on average will have 12 pairs of productive teats. Corinne Eliason, DVM, an instructor at Olds College, said that “there is more milk produced in the anterior of the underline so the most dominant piglets will get these teats and the weaker piglets will get the hind teats.” The desire to be at the front of the underline does not come from wanting to be closer to the sow's head but the desire for more milk. Milk production is related to the amount of blood flow to the area. The greater the blood flow the greater the quantity of milk produced in those mammary glands.

 

The mammary glands are divided into three basic categories: inguinal, abdominal, and thoracic pairs. The thoracic is closest to the sow's head and heart, and therefore produces the most milk. The abdominal glands produce the next greatest amount of milk, and the inguinal glands produce the least amount. Sometimes the hind teats produce no milk at all. So you don’t want to be left sucking the hind teat.

The fighting that takes place is just the piglet’s way of establishing dominance; the more powerful the piglet, the more milk that the piglet will get. This pecking order will be established within hours or days of the piglet’s birth, and there is a 90% chance that it will be maintained until weaning. The piglets feed more then 24 times per day; that’s why it is important for them to establish this pecking order. The quicker they know their place the quicker they can get down to eating.

The noise that the piglets make is just a way of telling everyone else in the litter that it is feeding time. It is like a child hearing the ice cream truck coming and yelling to others on the block that it’s time for  ice cream. This kind of vocalization is also seen in other animals that have litters, but not to the noise level of pigs; the sound of piglets at this time is deafening.

This pecking order is re-established after the piglets are weaned from the sow and placed into separate pens. They are sorted by weight to ensure a more uniform group. This prevents large pigs from being aggressive to smaller pigs and preventing them from feeding. This is managed as Trevor Sheehan, a pork producer, states, “By splitting them into groups by size you get a more uniform group that will all be ready for market at the same time.”

When one sow grunts for her piglets the squealing from those piglets sets off a chain reaction to all the other litters to start squealing too. Imagine standing in a barn with 50 sows with 10 squealing piglets each. They all start rushing to their mothers for a nutritious snack. The piglets find their favorite teat sparking the sound of silence, for a little while. So if you ever hear the short low grunts coming from a sow, plug your ears, sit back and watch the action unfold.

- Erin Belva, Jayne d'Entremont and Heather Stephens

Ruminating on teeth

 

How can one understand the digestive system of a cow without knowing exactly how many teeth she has? A simple number can give us a better understanding of digestion, if we know a bit more about these teeth. Cows have 32 teeth, just like humans do. What is interesting is where these 32 teeth are distributed and why. We all understand the functions of our own teeth, front teeth are for biting and back teeth are for chewing, but what does a cow do since she has no upper front teeth?

 
A cow’s teeth are distributed much differently than a humans’ teeth are. Unlike humans, cattle can be born with or without teeth. When they obtain their permanent teeth, after 30 months, they have 12 premolars top and bottom, 12 molars on top and bottom, and only 8 incisors which are all found on the bottom of their mouths. Instead of upper incisors, a cow has what is called a dental pad, a patch of tough skin covering their gums.

At first glance it would seem that missing front teeth would be rather inefficient when it comes to eating, especially since cows can eat up to 100 pounds of grass per day. But the cow’s mouth is only one of the many parts of the digestive system. A cow’s stomach is separated into four different compartments, the first of which is the rumen. The rumen helps compensate for front teeth in digestion, further reducing the size of food particles.

When cows eat, they use their tongues to wrap around grass and their lower incisors to cut it. They swallow grass mostly unchewed. The swallowed grass will enter the rumen for a short time but then it is pushed back up through the esophagus and into the mouth, where it is chewed and re-chewed. This process, called cud chewing, is repeated for 6 to 8 hours. While the food bolus, or cud, sits in the rumen, the fibre is being broken down by resident bacteria and protozoa into fatty acids and absorbed through the rumen walls. The process of chewing cud and breakdown in the rumen decreases the particle size of the grass, making the chopping function of front teeth unnecessary. If you happen to see a cow in the pasture seemingly chewing on nothing, it is actually chewing on its cud.

Cattle aren’t the only ones that have a dental pad in place of upper incisors; most ruminants share the same dentition. Sheep, goats, deer, and even camel have teeth which are similar because they are ruminants and their rumen works to perform the function of upper incisors. Horses, on the other hand, are monogastrics, meaning they do not have a  compartmental stomach and rumen. It is only logical then that horses don’t share the same dentition – they have upper incisors. By looking at an animal's mouth, you can tell what kind of stomach it has. Animals with no upper incisors can be assumed to be ruminants.

We can expect that if we brush our teeth twice a day we’ll be able to keep our 32 teeth until the day we die. Cows, however, can find themselves without teeth after only 10 years of age, a condition known as peg teeth. Normally cows do not reach the stage where they develop peg teeth as they are sent to market well before then. Although, as Dr. Reza Khorasani, the manager of the University of Alberta Dairy Research and Technology Centre explains, “[they] do see wear occurring on the teeth of [their] cattle.

Due to the large amounts of chewing a cow does, approximately 40 to 60 thousand jaw movements a day, their teeth are continually wearing down. This wear is consistent with most cattle and can be used to determine their age. However, according to Dr. Craig Wilkinson, a veterinarian and Director of Animal Care at the University of Alberta,

“After two years [teeth aging] becomes a very rough estimate [of age.]” Cows' mouths are not particularly prone to problems beyond terminal wear although Dr. Wilkinson points out, “They also occasionally get other problems such as broken teeth, or abscesses ... when cattle develop dental problems they are most often culled, then diagnosed.”

 

Although cows and humans may share the same number of teeth, their mouths have little else in common. Teeth placement and function are related to the digestive system of an animal. The cow’s compartmental stomach, specifically the rumen, takes the place of upper teeth. Don’t be alarmed if the next cow you see is apparently missing its front teeth or is chewing nothing for hours on end; she is just doing what all ruminants do best with what they have.

- Tyson, Bieleny, Sara Dargis, Kari-Ann Roveredo and Liz Simpson

Theese boots are made for walkin'

 

What’s the hardest working part of any cowboy? His boots! Whether he’s outside wrangling steers in the pasture or mucking out stalls in the barn, his boots go wherever he does. Many cowhides are used to provide those rowdy cowboys with hardy boots. The question remains: how many cowboy boots can be made from one cow, and how are they made? First the hide must be removed from the cow carcass at the slaughterhouse. A hide is split into two sides; each is measured from the belly to the back of the cow. The hide is cured in a brine or salt solution for approximately 16 hours. It is soaked in clean water and the hair is removed in a process called scudding. The dehaired hide is then degreased, desalted and soaked in water. The whole process takes about 50 hours.

Finally, the hide is tanned. There are two processes that may be used when tanning. Vegetable tanning is the traditional method where hides are stretched on frames and immersed for several weeks in vats of increasing concentrations of tannin. Tannin is a plant compound that occurs naturally in bark and is useful because it binds and removes the leftover animal proteins found on the hides. In today’s fast-paced industry, where time is money, a more efficient tanning process is needed. Mineral tanning, or “wet-blue” tanning takes less then a day. This method uses chromium salts which cause the leather to turn blue in the raw state and produces stretchable leather that is often used in lighter weight cattle hides.

In the finishing stage the hide is split, shaved, dyed and embossed, depending on the purpose of the leather. The leather used in cowboy boots is either full-grain leather or top-grain leather. Full-grain leather is left unchanged after processing and is leather in its natural form. Topgrain leather has a layer of the natural grain sanded off and an artificial grain applied to it.

Boot manufacturers then use the assembly system to punch out the different boot pieces from the hide and assemble the boot. Glen Bird of Cargill Foods Alberta recently toured Red Wing boot factory and describes the assembly line process: “First, there is a punch used to cut out the different patterns of the boot. They cut out the toe, heel, tongue, sides, and finger loops to pull your boot on. Then the pieces get passed on to the next station.”

According to the Alberta Boot Company, (Alberta’s only manufacturer of cowboy boots), this process involves over 200 steps performed by skilled employees. If Alberta Boot can manufacture 10 000 pairs of boots yearly and 40 pairs per day, then how many boots can they make from one cowhide?

We know that the surface area of cowhides varies depending on the breed, size and age of a cow. The rough surface area of a hide is 3.8m². By calculating the surface area of each piece of leather used in the boot, the total amount of leather used can be found, which is, on average, 0.3m². Thus, 11 cowboy boots per cow can be made. That’s enough to outfit five cowboys as well as another cowboy who enjoys wearing only one boot.

Some boots are made entirely of leather, including lining, pull straps, side panels and soles. Other boots are made partially of synthetic materials such as vinyl. If boots were made specifically for children or Shaquille O’ Neill (with size 22 feet), the area of leather required for these boots would vary dramatically. The Alberta Boot Company may use up to eight cowhides per day or almost 2000 cowhides per year.

Boot making can be quite a profitable business – custom boots can take two to three weeks to make, and can cost hundreds to thousands of dollars. Diablo Boots of Edmonton, Alberta can sell approximately 100 pairs per week, bringing in revenue of about 15 thousand dollars per week during the busy summer season. Costs all depend on the type of leather, embossing, and those other extra details. While many cow folk prefer the standard cowhide, there are the occasional eccentrics out there that want boots made out of python, lizard, shark, stingray, kangaroo,or even ostrich.

Cowboy boots aren’t just for cowboys and cowgals anymore: there are millions of boot fans out there. Boots are just as much a fashion statement as a work shoe. And when the entire process from farm to foot takes over 300 steps, cowboy boots can cost a small fortune. Boots that good must be made for walkin’.

 
- Jennifer Cave, Chantel Brust, David Law and Dawn Trautman

Who knew that 200 acres= 50,000km?

 

In 2004, students involved in Heifer In Your Tank found that you can travel from Edmonton to Calgary on the methane produced from 88 heifers. Using their information and combining new technologies such as biodiesel, we have found a better way to get your Hummer further down the road.

We compared two fields, each consisting of 20 acres of canola – one used to produce biodiesel and the other fed to cows which produce methane – and calculated the energy harnessed from each field. We then compared the fuel mileage of a Hummer using both kinds of fuel to determine which can get the Hummer further.

Biodiesel is made from canola oil which can be converted at a 1:1 ratio from canola oil to biodiesel. From 20 acres of canola, yielding an average of 45 bushels per acre, we can make 120 gallons of oil per acre, or 2500 gallons total. Changing oil to biodiesel takes relatively little time and is very efficient. From our yield of oil, 2500 gallons of biodiesel can be created. At 14 miles per gallon, this amount of fuel will be enough to drive 35000 miles or 50 000 kms. Using information from the previous Heifer In Your Tank group, enough methane would be produced from 20 acres of canola to drive 4,500 km. Biodiesel made from canola would allow travel of an extra 45,500 km at 14 miles per gallon.

 

Using cows to create methane, is a relatively inefficient process as a large amount of energy is used for both production and maintenance of the cow. Producing biodiesel eliminates the production and maintenance losses from the animal, allowing an energy savings of ten-fold.

 

Biodiesel is made using a chemical process called transesterification which adds a strong acid to the oil and produces a byproduct of glycerol and biodiesel. Glycerol can be sold in the market to offset some cost of production. Biodiesel offers many benefits both to the environment and to the user’s engine. Environmental benefits include reduced reliance on fossil fuels and lower emissions as compared to burning regular diesel. Biodiesel offers other benefits including increased consumer acceptance due to better smelling exhaust. Using canola to make biodiesel adds a French Fry smell when the fuel is burned. Benefits to engines, as compared to regular diesel fuel, include better lubrication, especially when compared to new ultra low sulphur diesel introduced in October 2006. Sulphur is  ow limited to 15 parts per million, and it played an important part in adding lubrication to diesel fuel. Biodiesel is supported by many engine makers in the agriculture industry, including John Deere and New Holland which both allow use of up to 5% blend of biodiesel with regular diesel in their new equipment.

This is a very exciting new technology helping agriculture throughout Canada. When comparing energy created from 20 acres of biodiesel vs. 20 acres of methane, 10 times the energy is created, showing biodiesel is a much better choice. Energy gains from biodiesel could be one of the future options for Canada’s farmers, and could help reduce dependence on fluctuating oil prices for industry.

“An increase in consumption of commodities driven by biodiesel manufacturing will drive prices higher, allowing a better future for Canadian farmers”, says Rick Dobush a Western Canadian Farmer. Next time you fill up your Hummer, remember that biodiesel helps your vehicle, farmers, and the environment.

- Dustin Dinwoodie, Nicole Hurt, Dan Rondeau and Chuck Scwanbeck

From the round- grocery bound

What's all the range about beef jerkey anyway?

 

Did you know that the word “jerky” originated from the Incan term Charqui (shar-kee), meaning dried meat? Thousands of years ago, prior to refrigeration, meat that was not immediately used was dried for later use. The meat was thinly sliced and hung over a smoky fire to give it flavour. The result? One of the earliest applications of food

preservation. This method enabled ancient peoples to use the meat as a staple during the long winter months without it spoiling.

Today, meat is still dried to make jerky. It is made by trimming the excess fat off of the raw meat; it is then thinly sliced, marinated in a curing solution, and dried. This preserves the meat, provides a better taste, and a longer shelf life. During the drying and dehydration process, the moisture content of the meat is reduced from 75% (raw) to 20-40% (dried) to limit the growth of microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast, and moulds which require a specific amount of water for survival. There are various methods that may be used to dry the meat, although not all are recommended, as it is difficult to maintain a steady, controlled dry heat. Food processing companies use large drying ovens. This method is safer than using a conventional oven or a food dehydrator.

In any food processing facility, Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) are very important. The HACCP system is designed to prevent the occurrence of any problems that may occur during food processing. This is achieved by ensuring that there are controls in place throughout the production process where any potential danger exists, such as biological contamination, or personal injury. One must prevent the growth of micro-organisms during processing and in the final product. When jerky is processed, biological contamination is controlled by regulating the time and temperature of the drying process.

 

Once the meat has been dried to 20-40% moisture content, it is cooled and packaged in a vacuum-sealed bag. The vacuum-sealed package is designed to remove as much oxygen as possible from the package to prevent spoilage of the jerky due to oxidation. Proper packaging of the jerky also contributes to its long shelf life.

Commercially-packaged jerky has a shelf life of 12 months in comparison to the 1-2 month shelf life of home-made jerky. Home processing is becoming increasingly popular among hunters and farmers who find themselves with a large quantity of meat at one time. Ryan Campbell utilizes a home processor to make deer jerky: “I have no room left in my freezer. Making jerky lets me store some of the meat in my fridge without it going bad too quickly.”

According to Michael Tratch from Cameron’s Meats located in Edmonton, Alberta, jerky is usually made from the “outside round, inside round and eye of round.” While any cut from the animal may be used for jerky, prime cuts are normally used to make products with larger profit margins like steaks and roasts. Jerky provides a use for cuts that are originally of lower quality.

The success of jerky is not limited to just beef: jerky can be fashioned from almost any meat. Forms of jerky have been developed from bison, elk, turkey, deer, and even salmon. Outside Canada, jerky is made from unique animals like emus, crocodiles, and kangaroos. Though not as common as beef jerky, other forms such as bison jerky are gaining popularity. The strength of beef jerky as a product goes along with the recent popularity of diets like the Atkins Diet. Protein-based diets, such as this one, support snacking on products like beef jerky as opposed to

high-sugar foods. With its long shelf-life, high-protein, low carbohydrate and low fat content, it’s the ideal snack for hikers, bikers, campers, and any outdoor enthusiasts.

Have you ever considered jumping on the beef jerky band wagon? Not only is it convenient, it’s a traditional food, with multiple nutritional benefits, and enough flavour choices to ensure that your favourite is on a shelf somewhere.

- Graham Collier, Nadin Laffin, Connor LaForge and Wendy Sheane

And on that farm he had a...bee?

 

Are bees not all the same? And why do we need them? The alfalfa leafcutting bee (Megachile rotundata) is an important team member on alfalfa-producing farms. The leafcutter is the only bee capable of pollinating alfalfa without tripping the floral release mechanism. When tripped, the keel of the flower traps the bee against the petal, making it hard to escape. Honeybees are too smart for our own good, since they are able to rob the nectar without pollinating the plant. According to D.W. Goerzen, Executive Director of the Saskatchewan Alfalfa Seed Producers Association (SASPA), “bumblebee populations are not generally present at high enough numbers to pollinate an alfalfa field and cannot be managed in open field situations.”

The alfalfa leafcutter is a small (only a quarter of an inch long), black bee with stripes of white hair on its abdomen. Male bees live 3 to 4 weeks and females live 4 to 5 weeks, with 4 life stages: egg, larva, cocoon, and adult. This bee typically grows up on rations of alfalfa pollen and alfalfa nectar, and is raised and sold commercially to pollinate alfalfa, carrots, and onions.

More and more farmers are turning to alfalfa leafcutter bees to supplement or replace domesticated honeybees in fertilizing crops that depend on insect pollinators. The reason is that, unlike domesticated honeybees, alfalfa  leafcutter bees don’t mind working in screened enclosures or greenhouses, allowing better management of the bees. Studies have also shown that alfalfa leafcutter bees are more efficient: about 150 alfalfa leafcutter bees working in screenhouses or greenhouses would do the job as well as 3,000 domesticated honeybees. With increased efficiency, the leafcutter bee may reduce pollination costs, as well as ease the stress on people working with the bees. When large numbers are confined in small spaces, the domesticated honeybee can become very irritable, intimidating people. Alfalfa leafcutter bees are gentler and are known only to sting when squeezed.

Another advantage of the alfalfa leafcutter bees is that it is a species of solitary bees. This solitary bee is a species that is not affected by two kinds of mites that have decimated many commercial honeybee colonies. Also, the solitary bees can’t mate with Africanized honeybees, so the risk of picking up the Africanized bees’ trait of extreme defensiveness is eliminated in the alfalfa leafcutter.

 
Unlike the honeybee that lives in a communal nest or hive, the solitary female leafcutter uses cut alfalfa leaves to build a nest of cells to house her offspring. This allows the bees to be housed in huts with nest trays, an ideal space saver when storing the bees is a necessity during Canadian winters. Luckily, the leafcutters are one of the few bees that undergo diapause, an increase in glycerol levels to prevent freezing, similar to hibernation. When temperatures increase to 20°C again leafcutters resume development.

With rising management and technology, the future of the alfalfa leafcutter bee looks very promising. It is an important domesticated pollinator of alfalfa for seed production in western Canada and has been used by alfalfa seed producers in Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan for over thirty years, and slowly it is emerging on the commercial market as the preferred bee for pollinating. Under ideal conditions this alfalfa leafcutting bee population doubles each year, with excess production marketed primarily to alfalfa seed producers in the northwestern United

States, globalizing the market for these wee bees. When an alfalfa producer uses 20,000 alfalfa leafcutting bees per acre for alfalfa seed production in Alberta, he knows that choosing co-workers that do not steal from the company, nor are clumsily tripping over production is important.

-Mat Bolduc, Jameh James, DebraMurphy and Amanda Still

How did they get the silk in the milk?

 

No, we’re not talking about soy milk: we’re talking about spider silk proteins in goat’s milk. Developed by Nexia Biotechnologies, silk milk could revolutionize the centuries old textile industry. Spider silk is five times stronger than steel, twice as strong as Kevlar and twenty-five percent lighter too. A cable as thick as your thumb has the ability to lift ninety elephants without breaking. If silk is woven into fabrics, it can be used as a super textile, coveted by many different industries for its strength and versatility.

In order to actually produce the silk protein in goat’s milk, scientists had to create a transgenic goat. A transgenic animal has a gene inserted into its own genome from another animal. For milk silk, scientists took one of the many different types of silk from an orb weaver spider and placed it into a quick growing dwarf goat from central Africa. Creating a transgenic goat involves many complex processes that can be simplified into five steps (Figure 1).

Going through all that trouble may seem rather silly instead of just harvesting silk right from a spider, but it’s actually the better option. Spiders can become cannibalistic if housed together, including a short period of time when the next generation of spiderlings needs to be made.

It may seem odd to cross these two very different animals, but they share some of the same systems.

The spider’s silk glands and the goat’s mammary glands are very similar in terms of protein production and storage. The similarities have provided a possibility to have silk produced in the mammary glands of a goat.

 
Once all the science was out of the way, all that remained were the mechanics: taking the silk protein out of the milk and spinning it into BioSteel®. The silk protein is water-soluble so it cannot be simply filtered out of the milk. Salt is added to the milk mixture to separate the silk from the milk; ethanol and water are then added in order to create the purified silk protein. From this point, scientists at Nexia attempted to spin the silk protein into the super-strong fibers that come out of the spider. Unfortunately to have the strength, you need to line up the proteins in a row – and this is where the difficulties come in. Scientists have been unable to spin the silk the way a spider would, and this results in a less durable silk line. Many of the proposed applications of spider silk would require the silk to be woven into a cable that could then be made into sheets of silk. Although there have been technical problems with the development of the actual fiber, ideas still abound for the use of this superior material.

For example, NASA was interested in woven spider silk to build aircrafts and spacecrafts. The US Army, which initially funded the spider silk research, wanted to use it to build body armor and other military devices. Due to its lightweight yet extremely strong design, it would be perfect for military protective clothing.

There are also more common uses being considered, such as fishing line and fishing nets. Because it is  iodegradable, spider silk would not pose the threats to the aquatic environment that current fishing nets do. The medical community could also make use of this amazing  material. Spider silk is compatible with the human body, so that things like artificial tendons, ligaments and limbs made out of silk would not be rejected by the body when transplanted. It would also be a good material for the sutures used in eye and neurosurgery. Even the fashion industry is interested in spider silk as a new material for its haute couture lines.

With all of the possible applications above, one might wonder why transgenic animals have not been used more widely. While the main reason is the cost behind the research and development, another huge impact is the skepticism of many scientists and researchers. Dr. Craig Wilkinson, a veterinarian and professor at the University of Alberta states, “While transgenic technology has the potential to be beneficial to humans and in some cases, the animals involved, we must be careful to evaluate the unintended consequences before adopting this technology broadly.” For these reasons it is anybody’s guess at what point in the future astronauts will be flying into space on a carrier manufactured out of a product of goat's milk.

-Aleks Argals, Carla Ollenberger, Kevin Hunt and Megan Roxbugh

Just a spoonful of sugar...

Why can sugar help your litty piggy's rectal prolapse?

Producing animals efficiently is not an easy job. Farmers face many problems in raising livestock. Swine farmers in particular, have had to learn how to deal with rectal prolapses. Believe us, it is not very nice.

A rectal prolapse occurs when a pig’s rectal walls fall out of place due to the breakdown of the muscles that support the pelvis. This occurs because of increased abdominal pressure. Environmental and/or nutritional factors may be the cause of this type of prolapse. Problems with feed, such as being ground too fine, spoiling by fungal toxins, or having high lysine (an amino acid in proteins) content, are major contributors to prolapses. Constipation or diarrhea, huddling and piling for warmth, coughing, complications in farrowing (giving birth), and docking tails too short (resulting in a snipped sphincter) are also factors that may lead to rectal prolapses.

What can be done to solve this problem? Normally in this type of situation, a veterinarian would want to surgically place the rectal tissues back inside the pig, then pull them together and close the anal opening with a purse-string suture (a continuous circular fibre). This procedure can be very costly and time consuming. What the veterinarian does not tell you is that common table sugar can help you in your effort to replace the prolapsed tissues. However, the use of sugar in this situation is considered to be a folk remedy. Mary Poppins may have been right after all.

 

Why does sugar help? A spoonful of sugar (or in our case a bowlful) helps the swelling go down. Sugar creates an environment where the solute concentration is greater on the exterior of the rectal tissues than inside of the cells that make up these tissues. Due to laws of osmosis (figure 1), water will passively move out of the rectal tissues and across the cell membrane. The cell wall is impermeable to sugar due to its stable and complex nature. This results in the shrinkage of cells, which will aid the farmer in pushing the less inflamed rectal tissues back inside the anus.

In addition to using sugar, it is important to give the affected pig antibiotics to prevent infections and painkillers to reduce discomfort. It is also essential to give laxatives to keep that colon flowin’.

Many sheep, cattle and swine producers have used or are using sugar to help the rectal prolapses of their animals, although the problem is not very common except in sheep. Sugar is a very cost efficient method of helping to reduce the severity of the situation and in the words of Murray Markert, a swine producer from southern Alberta, “It really works!” Tova Place, an employee of Mr. Markert, told us “Over the last ear, three (of six) sows have responded well to the sugar treatment and were able to farrow and nurse their litters.” Considering the alternatives of surgery or putting the animal down, a 50% success rate seems to be significant enough to continue using this method. Bring on the folk remedies.

- Shari Smith, Naomi Fisher, Suzan Sidra and Mathew Matras

How do pigs go to the Brier?

 

It’s common knowledge that pigs can’t fly, but can pigs curl? Of course not! Pigs can’t curl, so how can pigs actually make it to the Brier? The Brier is the annual Canadian Curling Championshipin which the best male curling teams from each province come together to compete for the national title. In order to be successful, teams need good quality equipment. A big factor in curling is the broom, used for decreasing friction on the ice to control the momentum of the rock.

There are numerous types of brooms, two of which are synthetic and hog hair. Traditionally, hog hair has been most popular because of its ability to cut frost and its suitability for people who sweep vigorously. Recently, this has become less of an issue due to less frost on the ice than in the past. Synthetic brooms are becoming more popular as they are readily available, cheap, and do not shed on the ice. Red Deer College Women’s team member, Patricia Smee, who plays second position says “I prefer synthetic because hair brooms leave residue on the ice which makes the rocks tick, meaning they go off course, which greatly affects the game.” Synthetic brooms require constant cleaning whereas the hog hair brooms do not. Curlers choose the broom that best suits their playing style.

 

Hog hair is flexible, coarse, and hollow, making it an excellent choice for a broom. Hair is made of keratin, a protein composed of sequenced amino acids, which is built around a structure called the cortex. This allows for a stiffer, yet elastic bristle.

Most of the hair used in hog hair brooms is imported from China and comes from a breed of pigs called Meishan. The hair is collected through the use of de-hairing machines, scalding tubs, scraping, or shearing. This hair is then exported from China to Canada where curling brooms are made. The Chinese market does not release much information on their bristle market to keep a competitive advantage over the rest of the world.

Hog hair has to be imported from China because Canadian swine breeds have been selected to have minimal hair. Dr. Craig Wilkinson, Director of Animal Care at the University of Alberta, says, “Market hogs of the breed, age and size desired by Canadian plants and their customers tend to be much less hairy than older pigs of other breeding.” Hair is selected against for ease of slaughtering, and this is acceptable as pigs are homoeothermic, meaning their body keeps a constant body temperature; therefore, hair is not needed. This selection process makes it nearly impossible for the Canadian swine industry to make any profit or gains in the hair market.

Hair is not the only way that pigs can go to the Brier. There are over 500 pig by-products available. According to Jodi Hesse, Alberta Pork Communications Specialist, “A viable animal agriculture industry not only provides an abundant supply of vital nutrients found in meat, but is also a ready source of essential and useful by-products that humanity depends on extensively. We use everything but the oink.” Some examples of the many by-products available are leather, crayons, chalk, insulin, glass, insulation, cosmetics, glue, fertilizer and jujubes.

Our research proves that pigs cannot curl, but they will be an essential part of every curling team. Whether it be the leather in curling shoes and gloves, hair in the brooms, food in the concession stand, insulation in the building, or fertilizer growing flowers outside the building, their participation at the Brier will continue for years to come.

-Jade Laramie, Jason Forster, Tara Harris and Brenda Campbell

How long before we are buried in waste?

Finding alternative uses for meat and bone meal

 

Have you ever wondered how your world would be if you were swimming in a sea of ground meat and bones? Without changes to the way we prioritize the meat and bone meal industry, it may become a reality. Around the globe, a massive amount of nutrient rich meat and bone meal is produced but is not being used to its full potential.

Meat and bone meal consists mainly of the inedible parts of an animal carcass. Everything that cannot be used for human consumption is made into meat and bone meal, except for what are called “specified risk materials” (SRM). Before BSE became an issue, every inedible part including SRM was included in meat and bone meal. There are different classes of meat and bone meal including blood meal, bone meal, meat meal and meat and bone meal (MBM).

Up until recently, the common practice was to feed complete MBM to cattle, pigs and chickens because it is an excellent source of protein and calcium. MBM is no longer an option as a feed supplement because of BSE (mad cow disease).

 

Since specified risk materials are now banned in MBM, producers can still feed it to pigs and chickens because their digestive system differs from cattle. Some producers do not feed MBM so they can claim that their animals are “all vegetable grain fed”.

In Europe, meat meal is banned for all use, which is a problem since they produce it faster than they can incinerate it. They currently have a backlog of 1 million tonnes that is increasing by the minute. According to Curt Hart, the Production Manager of Cargill Foods in High River, Alberta, Canada produces approximately 150,000 tonnes of bovine MBM on a yearly basis. On an annual basis, according to David Johnston in Corporate Development of Sanimax Corporation in Montreal, Quebec, the United States produces enough raw materials to fill a convoy of semi-trailers, four lanes wide, from New York to Los Angeles.

 

Some existing alternatives take advantage of the mass of MBM produced and its valuable nutrient content. Biodegradable fire-fighting foam made from blood meal is currently in production at the University of Alberta. Bags of meat meal in porous cloth can be hung on plants to protect them from deer and other wildlife.

David Johnson suggests the use of MBM as an alternative fuel source in the concrete industry to heat kilns as well as using it for fillers in concrete and composite wood products.

Biopolymers made from the protein in MBM can be used to make biodegradable plastics. The plastic can make products such as drug capsules and sausage casings. Dog, cat and fish foods include MBM since it is high in various nutrients. MBM can be used as a fertilizer for gardens, according to Curt Hart.

We need new economical alternative uses for meat and bone meal before we end up with a massive backlog and wasted resources, eventually being buried in an expensive waste.

- Shon Lowry, Diana Edwards, Katrina Soetart and Renee DeWindt

A horse can lead you to water, but can he smell it?

 

Some of us have heard stories that tell of a horse and rider becoming lost in the desert with no water. Being very thirsty, the horse becomes hypersensitive to the water in the air and therefore is able to locate enough water to save them both. Pure water, however, is a scentless liquid, so the horse does not smell the water: it smells some of the plant matter, bacteria, minerals, and other elements located within the water.

Everyone knows that the horse, equus caballus, is an extremely useful animal. Horses have been domesticated since prehistoric time and provide us with a form of sport, a hunting companion and vehicle, and labour for farming. But can they, as many legends suggest, actually smell and locate water?

Have you ever been to the ocean? Do you remember the air somehow smelling “wetter” there? Horses sense that too, and veterinarians also suggest that the horse locates water sources by sensing the changing humidity and water’s cooler temperature in the air with its nose. The horse is well adapted to many different climates, including deserts, so the ability to locate water is exceptionally important to the horse.

The ability of the horse to smell and locate water arose due to natural selection. Wild horses could only survive if they were able to locate water sources. If the horse did not have keen smelling abilities that allowed it to sense water, it would die of thirst. This resulted in the reproduction of horses with an increased ability to smell those water-based scents. Horses have also been used to locate water underground. They were used during the Ottoman Empire to discover water pipelines in surrounding castles. This was done by leaving the horses without water for several days, then walking the horses around the castle; the horses would kick the ground when there were water pipelines below. The Ottomans would then cut the water supply to the defending armies. In the wild horses would then dig up water with their hooves and expose natural underground water systems.

How are horses able to smell water underground? Organic material and water are rarely separated in nature; where water is, life grows. This life comes with all sorts of pollens, gases, decaying matter, and other scents that flavour the air. Horses associate these smells with the presence of water. With their superior sense of smell, (one million times better than a human’s) horses sense this material and know that just as “where there’s smoke, there’s fire”, where “there’s life, there’s water”.

History and legends are not the only places that you can find people who believe horses can smell water. Many horse-owners today believe their horses can smell water and also offer the proof of their horses not drinking the water of certain areas. When asked whether or not her horses could smell water horse-owner Bernadette Phillips replied, “Of course they can. Whenever we take them anywhere we need to bring either water from the farm or electrolytes with us to make sure they drink the water that ‘smells different’”. This may sound strange but it is a common problem for all horse-owners. When horses are stabled overnight in a strange place, they often refuse to drink the water. If they are offered a bucket of foreign water, they will smell it and turn away. Many horse-owners solve this problem by bringing water from home that they can mix with the new water or by bringing electrolytes for their horse. This helps the horse accept the newer smells, and drink the water.

Horses have been used for food, labour, companionship, and recreation over the centuries; however, their keen ability to locate and lead people water has impacted our history. From Ottoman war strategies, to the life-saving stories of a man perishing in the desert, horses have shown their usefulness in finding water when it’s been scarce.

-Sterling Low, Mohit Narula, Jane Burns and Chantelle Phillips

Sisterhood of the cow and chicken

Does a cow or hen metabolize more calcium?

 

 

How are cows and chickens similar? Both produce products high in calcium (milk and eggs), have similar calcium production curves (Figure 1), and can sometimes suffer from metabolic diseases related to calcium deficiencies.

Comparing daily feed intakes, a cow consumes 140 grams of calcium while a hen consumes 4.2 grams. However, when taking into account body mass, which metabolizes more calcium – a chicken or a cow? To answer this question, we calculated a ratio of the daily percent of calcium metabolized to the calcium in the body. A cow’s milk has 720 grams of calcium while its body contains 8.0 kg of calcium. Thus the percentage of daily calcium metabolized to the amount of calcium in the body is 0.88%. The egg shell a hen produces contains 2.18 grams of calcium. The amount of calcium in a hen’s body is 50.3 grams thus, the percent of calcium metabolized daily as compared to the calcium caontained in the body is 4.3%. Therefore, the hen relatively metabolizes more calcium.

 

Demands for calcium in a cow are highest during the finals months of pregnancy when the cow needs calcium for producing colostrum. According to Dr. Lorraine Doepel of the University of Alberta, colostrum is the milk that lasts a few days after calving and contains one-third more calcium than the average milk. With this high demand for calcium, cows can become ill with hypocalcemia, better known as milk fever. According to Dr. Jim Lawrence, a veterinarian from Westlock Alberta, milk fever is a metabolic state in which the circulating calcium falls below a critical level needed for skeletal muscle function. As a result the cow shows signs of weakness which may be severe enough to be fatal. This condition can be treated by administering calcium intravenously. Minutes after treatment, symptoms are dramatically reduced. Also, a good diet can prevent this weakness; when cows are not lactating, a low calcium diet allows the calcium regulatory system to become more efficient at absorbing calcium.

 

When a hen does not absorb enough calcium from her diet to meet calcium demands for egg production she begins to suffer from cage layer fatigue; the hen takes stored calcium from her bones making them soft and prone to fractures. According to Dr. Doug Korver, a professor at the University of Alberta, cage layer fatigue is like osteoporosis. This onset is caused by a lack of exercise because the hens are housed in small cages, and/or insufficient calcium in its diet. By managing these factors, cage layer fatigue can be avoided.

 - Alison Kumpula, Brian Cheung and Eric Lawrence

The facinating world of extra nipples

The lowdown on extra teats in cattle

 

 

Did you know that cows can have extra teats? Many people believe that cows only have four teats; however, approximately 50% of cows have one or more extra teats.

Most accessory teats have a slightly different structure compared to regular teats. They are usually smaller and located at the back of the udder.

An udder is divided into four sections called quarters. The inside of each quarter is filled with tiny sacs known as alveoli, which are responsible for milk production. Alveoli release milk into the gland cistern, a “storage tank” in the udder. The process when milk is released from alveoli is commonly referred to as milk letdown, which can take 10 to 20 seconds to occur. After milk has been released it travels through the nipple to the outside world.

In theory, an extra teat could be a great way for farmers to increase production; however, this is not the case. Extra teats have little impact on milk production. Most extra teats have no alveoli to produce milk, or they are not connected to a quarter. Occasionally, dummy teats do produce a small amount of milk, but it is not enough to significantly increase production.

A fifth teat can be looked at in a similar fashion to a third nipple in humans. To some farmers, it is just a blemish and is of no concern, but others will have them removed. Harry Koeckhoven, a Stony Plain dairyman stated “It’s ok to have a fifth tit in the parlor, but not in the show ring.” Harry has similar ideas to beef producers. When asked about extra teats, Ken Rutledge, a rancher from Hardisty commented, “The fifth tit serves no purpose in the beef herd. The calf is unable to suck it because it is too small and it produces little or no milk. In a purebred herd extra tits can be snipped off with a sharp knife when the calf is a day old. When the heifer freshens she will have  a nicer well balanced udder.”

Removing an extra teat eliminates one possible site of infection, since any unused cavity is ideal for bacterial growth. Also, if extra teats get large enough they can interfere with the milking machines so removal is sometimes necessary. Fifth teats are often removed on show cows since they are considered unwanted blemishes in the show ring, which could cost you the red ribbon. The removal of an extra teat does not affect milk production or the cow’s growth and development. Removal is more for convenience or aesthetics.

The removal of extra teats should be done when a calf is less then three months old. The teat being removed is cleaned, and then cut off with clean sharp scissors followed by the application of disinfectant to reduce the chance of infection. By properly removing an extra teat pain is minimal and healing is fast.

Fifth teats or extra nipples are not only seen in cattle, but in many other animals. All mammals can have extra nipples. Unfortunately they can be seen in both males and females.

- John Koeckhoven, Tess Rutledge, Kelsey Shaker and Tina Shih

Not scaredy cats...Scaredy goats.

Would you like to learn more about fainting goats?

 

Yes, there are fainting goats. No, they are not a mythical creature from an island far away or a trained circus animal. You can find them right here in Alberta. Just a change in a single nucleotide can make a goat can end up with this interesting ability.

Any sudden change in the environment that causes a goat to be nervous, scared, or excited can cause their external muscles to stiffen up. Do you REMEMBER the part in Jurassic Park where the raptors pop out in the kitchen? Did you jump as high as I did? My whole body stiffened right up. Then, in a split second, I was relaxed and checking to see if anyone saw me jump.

These goats are easily scared, but when their external muscles contract they lack the ability to relax again immediately. This gives the appearance of fainting. Technically the goats have what is called myotonia congenita. An autonomic recessive gene causes this. A recessive gene takes second fiddle to the more dominant gene when the

two of them are present. This double recessive trait causes a malfunction of the chloride ion channels in the skeletal muscles. Chloride ions are important for relaxation and contraction of muscle. When these goats get scared, these chloride channels maintain muscle contraction longer than usual.

It is an hereditary trait, meaning even if the parents do not show symptoms they can pass it along to their offspring. Adults can sometimes learn to brace themselves instead of falling over and will even try to run with a stiffened sawhorse appearance. Generally as the animal gets warmed up from exercise the stiffening lessens temporarily. The same is true of people with this condition, and is referred to as “the warm-up phenomenon.”

Since discovery in the 1880s, farmers have found many uses for these goats. The history surrounding these goats is a mystery and not well documented. What is known is that a stranger, John Tinsley, wandered into a town in Tennessee with a couple of fainting goats and a cow. He then sold them to a local veterinarian named Dr. Mayberry before leaving the area. The vet then took it upon himself to breed them to research their strange condition.

Sheep farmers used them to distract predators from their flocks, as a goat flat on its back is a much easier target, nearly leading to extinction by the 1970. If it were not for the people who keep them for pets, the breed would be extinct. Fainting goats have a reputation for being mild mannered, friendly, easily kept animals. Susan White from Faint Hope Acres in Nanton, Alberta told us “they are excellent 4-H projects due to their medium size…less intimidating for children.” Plus, they provide great entertainment for hours on end.

So if you’re driving down the highway and see goat legs sticking up through the blades of grass, relax: you don’t have to rush out of your car to give the goat CPR. You can think of this article and know that in just a few seconds that it will be back up and at ’em. Just remember…“They can be like a problem with a car, when you specifically want to show them fainting to someone, that’s when they will not do it.” (Douglas Scott, Poplar Ridge Farm, Kitscoty, Alberta)

-Jocelyn Babin, Dani Paron and Kim Christie

Double Trouble?

Do double-yolked eggs hatch two chicks?

 

Sometimes when you eat breakfast in the morning you get a special bonus: a double-yolked egg. This rarity happens frequently and naturally in nature. Getting these double-yolked eggs in your breakfast brings up the question: if they were fertilized, would there be two surviving chicks? Unfortunately the answer is no; an egg that has two yolks rarely if ever hatches two chicks. Mammals can successfully deliver healthy twins, so why can’t a double yolked egg hatch two chicks? The answer lies in how an egg is formed and hatched.

How is an egg made? An egg’s production starts when a yolk drops from the ovary into a funnel-like structure called the infundibulum. The yolk then takes a 26 hour journey through the hen’s oviduct, where the albumen, or egg white, and various membranes are developed and deposited around the yolks. A hard calcium shell is deposited in the shell glands to complete the egg. Finally the egg exits through the chicken’s rear orifice, or cloaca.

For an egg to hatch a baby chick it has to be fertilized when it is formed. Fertilization occurs after a yolk is released from the hen’s ovary and is deposited into the infundibulum. Rooster sperm, which can be stored in the infundibulum for up to one month, fertilizes the follicle. The egg then forms normally and the yolk serves as the main supply of energy for the developing embryo. Embryos can grow only to a limited size due to the restricted space in an egg. When a chick hatches, it taps into an air cell which is built into the egg to provide oxygen for the chick. How do we get double-yolked eggs? Double-yolked eggs occur when the ovary releases two follicles simultaneously. These two yolks then complete the same process as regular eggs, producing what appears to

be a slightly larger egg. According to Brenda White, the Marketing and Communications Manager at Alberta Egg Producers, double-yolked eggs are often produced by young hens whose egg production cycles are not yet completely synchronized or by hens which are old enough to produce extra large eggs.

When two yolks are fertilized and develop into a double-yoked egg, restricted resources and space are the main factors which limit its hatchability. Unfortunately, the egg cannot expand to provide enough space for both chicks as a mammalian uterus could. There is also a problem when two chicks try to hatch because of the existence of only one air cell in the egg. The probabilities of both chicks surviving the hatching are very low because of this lack of oxygen. Consequently, when a doubleyolked egg is fertilized, with the limited resources available, sometimes only one chick survives. Often the two developing embryos compete with each other so much that the egg doesn’t even hatch and neither embryo survives.

So besides the pleasant surprise during breakfast, what benefits do double-yolked eggs have? Unfortunately, a double-yolked egg will sometimes hatch only one chick due to limited resources, space, and oxygen supply in the egg, and often this natural wonder won’t even hatch one chick!

Jorge Gallegos, the Manager at Lilydale Hatchery in Edmonton, says that the hatchability of double-yolked eggs is very low, making it not economically feasible to hatch them. It appears that a double-yolked egg is best left to be enjoyed at our breakfast. Next time you crack a double yolked egg, consider yourself lucky and enjoy!

-Jason Welsh, Rodrigo Fuentes, Rob Kyle and Blend Bardhi

Does size really matter?

Why is a cornish game hen and why is it so small?

 

When shoppers set foot in a grocery store, there is an array of poultry products to choose from. The hardest part will be to decide which product will best suit their needs for dinner. From the freezer to the refrigerated aisles, there are literally hundreds of products to choose from. This includes the Cornish Game Hen.

Some consumers believe that the Cornish Game Hen is a poultry product imported from some foreign country. Angie Tran, a Save-On Foods deli employee, thought Cornish Game Hesn were imported and then processed here in Canada for the Canadian poultry market. This misconception is prominent because the poultry industry has emphasized and priced the Cornish Game Hen in such a way to lead consumers to perceive it in this manner. Simply, it’s nothing more than a young, small domestic broiler chicken that can be found at local farms. The name

Cornish Game Hen is misleading as well, since the chicken is not actually a game bird. Like every other broiler chicken, it is raised on a farm for its meat. In order for a bird species to be deemed “game”, it either has to be wild or of wild bird species descent. For instance, geese, duck and Guinea Fowl are considered to be “game” birds.

Chickens are classified based upon their age and weight. According to Dr. Martin Zuidhof, Poultry Research Scientist for Alberta Agriculture, Food, and Rural Development, the Cornish Game Hen is marketed at

28 days of age. On the other hand, the broiler is marketed at 42 days and the roaster at 56 days of age. For a younger and smaller chicken, the price of the Cornish Game Hen is substantially more than that of your conventional broiler and roaster. It is almost double that of a broiler. For corresponding weights and price ranges, see Table 1 for further details. Before the mid-1900s, chickens were bred to produce both meat and eggs. By the 1940s, as the market for poultry grew, breeders began to breed for more specific areas of production (either meat or eggs).

 

Plymouth Rock hens and Cornish roosters were crossed to produce new broiler progeny that showed heterosis. The offspring of this cross showed higher meat yield and better feed-conversion.

Cornish Game Hens are often found as entrées on the menus of fivestar restaurants. Since it is being served at such a high-end place, the Cornish Game Hen may be seen as being a high- quality, rare delicacy. The price of the entrée will also suggest to costumers that they’re paying for something special. Yet, the Cornish Game Hen dinner at a five star restaurant is really no different than a chicken dinner served at Earl’s or Swiss Chalet, except for the price. The Cornish Game Hen may have tasted a little better and was conveniently sized on the plate, but simply, it’s just chicken!

Since the secret about the Cornish Game Hen has been revealed, perhaps you, the consumer, won’t hesitate to try one of these ‘imported delicacies’ at home like a culinary expert. So don’t expect to find the Cornish Game Hen flying around in the woods on your next hunting adventure; instead, you'll find it frozen, ready to cook, in yourneighborhood grocery freezer aisle.

-Sara ito, Taryn Ng and Stefon Beechinor

Seeing Spots?

 

The beef on cloning cattle

 

Contrary to popular belief, clones, like identical twins, are not carbon copies of one another. With recent scientific advances the cloning of animals has become a more common process. Cattle, sheep, mice, and horses are amongst some of the few mammals to have been recently cloned. The cloning of livestock has assisted scientists in advancing research for production improvement and disease prevention. It also allows for the genetics of sterilized animals to be carried forward. Clones contain an identical copy of DNA to that of the donor cow they originated from. However, although genetically identical, DNA is not the only factor to contribute to an individual’s physical appearance – for example, the spotting patterns of dairy cattle, which are measurable and comparable amongst clones.

These cows, or Holsteins, are often cloned because of their role in the dairy industry and may be duplicated for desirable traits such as high milk production, quality milk composition, or resistance to disease. Cloning begins with a small sample of tissue from the cow to be cloned. All the genetic information of the animal can be found within

the nucleus of one cell from this sample. This nucleus can be extracted and implanted into an unfertilized egg cell that has had its genetic information removed through a process termed enucleation. Implanting the nucleus into the egg is key to the success of the cloning process, for the ovum is the only cell capable of differentiating into the various tissues that form a new being. The developing embryo is allowed to divide several times in the laboratory before it is implanted into the uterus of a surrogate female. After a gestation period of about 282 days, the cloned calf is born.

A cow’s spotting pattern is the result of a number of biochemical reactions during embryo development. In the earliest stages of embryonic growth, several key DNA sequences interact to generate the expression of the pattern: the S, or spotting locus, determines that the spotting pattern itself will be evident. Nearby, a QTL, or quantitative trait locus, determines the degree of spotting that the cow will express.The E, or Extension, locus determines that the spots will be black by the production of the pigment eumelanin.

The embryo’s neural crest cells, which will later become the calf’s central nervous system, differentiate into pigment-containing cells called melanocytes. Melanocytes  migrate through the immature skin to the origin of the spot determined genetically. At that point, cell division allows the spot to spread randomly until chemical messengers and maturation of the skin halt the process. Regions where melanocytes are lacking are not pigmented and appear white. Areas like the chest and legs are frequently white due to the process of pigment distribution, which begins at the top of the animal and proceeds downward.

 

In addition to genetic factors, Dr. Timothy Olson, a professor at the University of Florida, explains environmental variables such as oxygen delivery through the placenta, or position in the uterus also contributes to the spreading pattern of the melanocytes. Thus, because an animal’s physical appearance is not solely based upon genetic sequence, obtaining two physically identical animals is impossible.

With increasing scientific knowledge cloning is becoming a greatly practiced procedure. Although ethical issues may arise, there are several key advantages to this process. According to Dr. Olson, “Cloning will likely have some utility in the improvement of cattle but certainly will not replace selection programs.” Another advantage pointed out by Dr. Derrick Rancourt, Associate Professor at the University of Calgary, is that cloning has the potential to revive extinct species as was recently done with the water buffalo. The issues with cloning arise as technology becomes better understood begging the question of whether or not cloning is ethically sound in humans. In fact, most G7 countries, including Canada, have passed a bill to ban human cloning. The question that we as a society must answer is no longer, can we, but should we continue to advance this technology?

-Maureen Mackenzie, Becky Gilday, Vanessa Heron and Alison Martins

Don't be sheepish, it's still good for ewe

Why do we eat imported lamb when we raise sheep in Alberta?

 

Sitting in a cozy country restaurant in central Alberta, you decide to take a break from your usual Alberta beef and switch to lamb instead. To your absolute horror you find that they do not serve Alberta lamb with a mint sauce; rather it is imported lamb from New Zealand. Outrage! Travesty!

Or perhaps, reality. Sitting in the middle of winter in Alberta we are accustomed to ranchers relaying stories of cows dropping calves into snowbanks like pennies into a piggybank. We live an area where society jokes that “if you don’t like the weather, wait five minutes”, but this tongue-in-cheek comment actually hits the lamb industry quite hard. New Zealand boasts a climate with both a mild winter and summer, and they don’t see the extreme –40 to +40 degree changes within a six month period like most of Canada does. According to Anthony Ruffo, President of the New Zealand Lamb Company Ltd., lamb production is extremely efficient in New Zealand due, in part, to the moderate climate 12 months of the year as well as a plentiful supply of fresh water and open pasture.

Another difference between the lamb industries is feed programs. New Zealand animals are raised on grasslands. Sue Hosford, Business Development Specialist Livestock Products of Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural delopment says that grazing the animals on grass year-round tends to give the meat a strong, distinct flavour. When Albertan sheep producers finish their animals on grain, they are not only producing a meat with a milder flavour but they are increasing their production costs. Hosford states that 80% of Alberta’s cost in the sheep industry arises from the winter feed costs.

With this price separation, consumers see a difference when they get to the supermarket. Alberta lamb carries a premium on it due to the cost of production as well as the scarcity of product. One of the biggest challenges facing the lamb industry at this moment is the lack of processing plants. While the borders closing in 2003 affected the beef industry, doors also closed to sheep and impacted the growing market. Currently, Sunterra Meats is working to increase the numbers of lamb processed in Alberta; Hosford says Sunterra processed approximately 80,000 head of lamb last year. With this initiative, lamb consumption in Alberta is expected to increase by more that 40% by 2020.

While a wide array of challenges lie between Alberta lamb producers and a firm hold in the meat market, they are not impossible obstacles. Increasing efficiency of year-round production, educating consumers of an alternative meat source, and developing better processing facilities will all play a large role in Alberta developing a fast-hold in the industry. However, New Zealand exporting to Canada is not unlike the many export advantages Canada has to other countries, says Ruffo. So the next time you are sitting in a cozy country restaurant and have a craving for something different, why not try that imported lamb from New Zealand? All things considered, it is realistic to look to the future and see Alberta lamb as a commonplace meat product. With time, the Alberta sheep industry might flourish not only domestically but within the international trade markets alongside major exporter countries like New Zealand. Until that time, if it ain’t Albertan, it’s still sheep!!

-Alix deBeaudrap, Kendall Watson, Karin Lindquist and Malori Sparrow

Do black cows taste better?

Does cattle colour dictate meat quality?

  

Marketing has always contributed to our idea of the ideal “quality” product, whether it is clothing, cleaning supplies, or most importantly, the food we eat. The question is what to believe: just because a company markets a product as being the best doesn’t mean that it’s true. When we enter the world of numbered aisles and pristine packaged wrapped foods it’s hard to distinguish the good from the bad, the quality from the imitation – and the marketing companies don’t make it any easier for us.

The intensive marketing that has surrounded the beef industry in the past decade has created a difficult choice for those uninformed consumers who just wish to purchase a good cut of meat. The average shopper is not able to recognize a choice cut based on the meat alone. Cynthia Baerg, a shopper interviewed at a local grocery store admitted to “simply choosing the most expensive and best labeled steak” when she wanted a good meal. This is fairly common; if you want a good steak you pay more for it.

What about the advertising behind the meat industry? When asked which beef was best, a majority of shoppers recognized Black Angus as a good quality steak. But why is the Black Angus breed so popular? The Angus industry would have consumers believe that it is because of their cattle’s superior meat quality. However most consumers have no concept of how this is determined.

All meat in Canada is graded according to a special standard established by the Canadian Beef Grading Agency. There are five main traits that are responsible for determining the quality of the meat that is being cut. The first and generally most important is the measure of fat distributed throughout the cutable meat. This is known as the intramuscular fat percentage and the higher it is, the higher the quality of the meat. Next is the yield grade, which measures the percentage of saleable meat cuts that you can get from the carcass being processed. Cattle producers aim for as high a yield grade as possible. Rib-eye area is another of the important traits; it is the measure of the size of the meat cuts usually measured in between the 12th and 13th ribs of each carcass. Fat thickness is important as consumers become more conscious of the leanness of the meat they are purchasing; a good quality carcass will have as little fat covering as possible. Last of all is the actual carcass weight which directly affects the rib-eye area and fat thickness.

 

According to the quality of the carcass determined by these traits each cut is graded as A, AA, or AAA, and it is these grades which are mainly responsible for the price that we all see on the shelves. However, it is not true that just the Black Angus cows that produce AAA meat, even if the marketing would have you believe it. It is true that the Aberdeen Angus breed has an affinity for high carcass quality but that same level of quality can be produced in any type of cattle if they are raised properly. Much of what determines the specific carcass traits selected for in our market is not determined by genetics but by the food and environment to which the cattle are exposed.

This means that paying extra for a Black Angus steak doesn’t mean you’re paying for better quality. An AAA steak will always be an AAA steak whether it is from a Black Angus or not. The Aberdeen Angus Association should be given credit for its good marketing. By pushing their cattle breed as having the tastiest meat around, they have created demand in a market that was otherwise unbiased as to where their product originated.

This has greatly affected the Canadian as well as the American beef industry. “People are looking for black cows now” says a local beef producer. “They have no idea that it’s not the colour that decides thequality. They see the Black Angus label and the meat flies off the shelves.” The marketing of Black Angus beef as superior has led to an increase in the number of Angus cows that are raised. Farmers have started to abandon the favorite Hereford breeds and crossbreed mixes in favour of the widely praised Black cows. This narrowing of the market has not contributed to any problems in the beef industry as yet but it is a touchy topic for many beef producers, especially since most purebred cattle breeders have their own specific ideas about which cattle are the best. In the end consumers will continue to purchase what they feel to be the top quality product. Until consumers become informed, the notion of

a black cow as a better cow will continue to prevail. In the end, however, you get what you pay for: a AAA steak, whether it is Angus or not, will make a tasty meal.

-Brianna Hellum, Janelle Nixon and Brirttany Liska

How much is that doggie in the window? And how much is the farmer's share?

An Sc 200 students were challenged to find out just how much the farmer's share is for a variety of products sold in grocery stores. Items like Chicken Pot Pie, Yogurt, KFC Popcorn Chicken and Buttermilk. How much of that Hot Dogs does the farmer actually get paid for? (Click links to see student projects).

With a bit of math and some super creative presentations here are the top highest and lowest earning products for the farmer that the class found.

Six of the highest earning products for farmers: (Farmer's share 20% to 30% of retail price)
These products tended to be directly marketed to consumers, had very little processing before reaching the consumer or were for a niche market.

• Bison Pemmican
• Milk
• Grassfed Beef
• Organic Bronze Turkey
• Coffee Cream
• Omega Eggs
  
  

Six of the lowest earning products for farmers: (Farmer's share -0.05% to 0.01% of retail price)
These products tended to have more processing involved, were of low demand to consumers, were a by-product from another product, or the cost of production was higher than the revenue.

• Lard
• Haggis
• Value-added Heater Meal (Includes its own heater!)
• Chicken Nuggets
• Prairie Oysters
• Beef Kidneys

As on of the students pointed out, its interesting that as consumers we are very aware of the nutitional value of food (with food labels and nutrional values) but we're very unaware of where the money trail goes. There's lots of ways to make our food choices, basing them on farmer's share is one more.

 

The bare bones of chicken respiration

An insightful investigation discussing how chickens can breathe through their bones

  

Imagine breathing in while you’re breathing out, running a marathon and never being short of breath. Have you ever wondered how birds can fly thousands of miles, hundreds of feet above the ground, all the while breathing softly and soundly in the cold, harsh, thin air? The answer is rather curious, and consequently quite intriguing.

The respiratory system of birds is dramatically different and, arguably,vastly superior to that of mammals. Avian lungs, in clear contrast to ours,are almost completely rigid, relying on thin, membranous air sacs to direct air through in a unidirectional manner. Chickens have a total of nine air sacs: four connected to each lung, and one large intraclavicular air sac shared between the two lungs.

Birds, again unlike mammals, do not have a diaphragm and therefore rely on the muscles between their ribs and sternum to expand and contract their thoracic (chest) cavities. This expansion and contraction allows the air sacs to draw in and expel air, but in a way that keeps a constant flow of fresh, oxygenated air moving through their lungs.

This is especially important in poultry. Dr. Frank Robinson, an avian physiology researcher at the University of Alberta, states that “commercial birds have a very fast metabolic rate and a fast growth rate. Hence they need oxygen in great quantities”. Regardless of whether or not a chicken is breathing in or out, there is still fresh air (previously stored in the rear air sacs upon inhalation) diffusing into the bloodstream. This constant flow of fresh air is the reason for the respiratory and metabolic superiority of birds.

A unique evolutionary trait of birds is the complex integration of the air sac system into the skeletal system. Many birds, including chickens, have hollow bones, an adaptation resulting in light body weight and therefore ease of flight. Consequently, some of the air sacs have extensions called diverticula which protrude inside the medullary cavities of a few hollow bones, namely the thoracic vertebrae and humeri bones. Although the exact function of the air sac extensions is unknown, their presence insinuates a clear correlation between the skeletal and respiratory systems

It is this fascinating correlation between bones and air sacs that leads us to ask whether or not chickens can breathe through their bones. The answer is, of course, no. Bones and air sac membranes are impermeable to air so it is quite impossible for outside air to diffuse into the respiratory system through the bones. But take this question one step further. Imagine breaking open a humerus bone and tearing a hole in the air sac membrane lining the interior. This introduces an intriguing situation; there is now an opening into the chicken’s respiratory system through its bone.

 

Dr. Doug Korver, a poultry nutritionist at the University of Alberta, extrapolates that “if the bird’s primary bronchus were blocked and an air sac were punctured, the negative pressure would draw air in through the opening”. However, “the hole would have to be big enough to allow enough air through the bone into the lungs”. Dr. Korver emphasizes that the question is purely theoretical and that no scientific documents have been found supporting this captivating theory.

 

The avian respiratory system, though elaborate and complex, holds a design far superior to that of humans. A constant flow of fresh oxygen to the blood allows for unmatched respiratory and metabolic efficiency. The intricate incorporation of air sacs into the skeletal system prompts the query of whether or not chickens can breathe through their bones. This question, although theoretical, can be solved by studying the respiratory physiology of birds and consulting a few reputable experts. The evidence and curious correlations incited by this topic truly provide some flavorsome food for thought.

 

-Michael Price, Kelsey Routledge, Jen Macdonald and Danielle Carrington

 

Using everything but the 'moo'

 
It’s an age old question that needs some answers! Today’s society is perceived as being a wasteful one, yet when it comes to the carcass use of cattle this is not so. Our slaughterhouses are bigger and much more efficient, our knowledge of the bodies of cattle is greater than it used to be and our technology is truly outstanding. All of these factors have had a great influence on the conversion rate of cattle to by-products which has contributed to our everyday life.

Contrary to popular opinion the term ‘carcass’ in Alberta refers to the tradable parts of an animal,
including the meat and bones, and excluding the hide or the offal. Offal is the edible organs and other inedible parts of the animal that have other uses and are typically viewed as having little value at the slaughterhouse.

The meat of a cattle carcass is divided into several sections, with the most prized cuts of meat coming from the back half of the animal. However, that doesn’t mean that the meat from the front quarters is bad, as many of you who have had slow-roasted brisket can attest to. When asked if there was a difference in eating quality between breeds in Alberta, Dr. Mick Price, a beef expert at the University of Alberta, responded, “All beef breeds are the same.” Dr. Price also confirms that hot dogs are truly made out of meat. Moe Roshan, a meat supervisor at Superstore, aid that the best selling cuts of meat are T-bone, prime rib, tenderloin and top sirloin. The fat is the only waste product that is produced in the store, and is collected and sold to cosmetic companies as a raw  material for lipstick and foundation production.

The uses for cattle are not only limited to meat products! The hide can be made into leather products, the hide trimmings can be used to make fertilizer and glues, and the hide fat can be used to make soaps, candles, and animal foods. The inner layer of the skin can be used to make cosmetics and collagen products, the tail and inner-ear hair can be used to make paint brushes, and the body hair can be used for felting. Bone carbon can be used to make ball bearings, and gelatin, used to make gummy worms and Jello, can be made from the bones, hooves and horns.

It is apparent that today’s society does try its best to make use of the whole animal. From the T-bone steaks that are on our dinner tables to the glue used in schools, everything that CAN be used to make the by-products IS. Despite the Mad Cow Disease outbreak, we have worked our way around this to continue to use cattle in the most efficient way and not exposing consumers to the disease. So we do indeed use ‘everything but the moo’, in fact we use the moo as well… those toys the imitate cow noises!!

- Brent Hook, Brigette So, Melanie Mattila, Micole Chrisenson and Tammy Cooper

If it doesn't neigh is it still horsepower?

 

The horse was brought to North America in the early 1600s and was quickly adopted into the aboriginal culture, becoming known as a symbol of power and wealth. The buffalo hunting Plains tribes saw the horse as sacred, with supernatural powers to help in hunting, medicine, and other aspects of tribal life. Cree First Nations Elder Jerry Wood, from the Aboriginal Student Services Centre at the University of Alberta, commented on how the horse replaced the dog. He jokingly admitted that the horse became more valuable than the woman, who was responsible for making and moving teepees. The horse eventually took over the task of transporting teepees, which allowed the Plains Tribes to follow the buffalo with greater ease. Elder Jerry Wood also spoke of the "Sundance Horse", a poem dedicated specifically to the horse. This poem shows that the horse was respected, honored, and loved because the horse helped the people to live and to continue on for generations. Nevertheless, with the arrival of settlers and the buffalo herd collapse, the traditional Plains tribal life transformed dramatically. The use and symbolism of the horse diminished—their monetary value decreased due to a sudden increase in the horse population and they became inadequate for use in the hunt. The use of the horse increased among the settlers, and their main purpose was to improve farming techniques, where they proved to be more flexible, faster and easier to handle than the oxen used previously.

By the 1900s, horses were used for everything, from riding into town to powering large machinery like reapers and threshers. Such horse-powered machines multiplied man-hour production of wheat eighteen fold! However, the time it took to care for the horse limited its efficacy, thus farming proved laborious and demanding for the farmer and his horses. Furthermore, World War I demanded farmers to increase production, which led to the rapid replacement of horses with such horsepower equivalents as the tractor. To help the transition, the Canadian government contracted to buy 1000 2-plow tractors and sold them to farmers at cost (about $800), thus further expanding the popularity of the tractor. Unfortunately, farmers were becoming anxious about the now un-saleable horses eating their valuable grass. In 1943, the end of the horse in horsepower was signaled by the shipment of roughly 100,000 horses from Alberta to the Chicago killing yards. Although horses remained for odd jobs unsuitable for the tractor, their numbers continued to decline throughout the 1950s.

Today, the tractors used in agriculture dwarf the tractors of old. With the plethora of luxuries found in them, you would be hard-pressed to find farmers returning to the old standard of horse-driven power. Presently, Lewis Farms Ltd. has a couple of horses, which Corrie Lewis states, "are used just for pleasure riding and occasionally for moving cattle," and other farms have horses for this use or no horses at all. Nevertheless, the term "horsepower" does stem from the very thing that neighs; yet today, it is used for the very thing that roars, a tractor, which has replaced the standard horse.

- Kelsey Bourgeois, Abrya Suthendran, Alexia Hoy, Julia Mitchell, Robyn Thrasher and Gina Vivak

 

How do we move moos?

 
In Canada there are many regulations enforced by the CFIA and the SPCA surrounding the correct and acceptable way to transport animals. First, it is unacceptable to transport animals that are unable to withstand the stress of transportation. Animals that are unable to move on their own or have an injury that considerably hinders their mobility are considered compromised and unfit for transportation. As well, any physically affected (dehydrated, exhausted or with fever) or mentally affected animal with a nervous system disorder cannot be transported.

However, in certain circumstances animals may be transported to a processor or veterinarian for treatment even if they are compromised. Steps should be taken to prevent further injury or unnecessary suffering for animals with open wounds that are bleeding or with bone exposure, have missing limbs, are blind in both eyes or animals that have recently been pregnant. Brent Allison, a feedlot owner states that he "would contact a vet to come look at the animal before transporting it. If it [is] necessary to transport a downer animal a letter must be given by a vet if they feel it is justifiable to transport it. It is important to make sure that animals are treated in the most humane way".

Livestock must also be transported in an acceptable form of transportation. Warren Fertig, the owner of Allan Dale Industries Ltd., explains the importance of various new features that have increased the animal’s safety during transportation. One innovation includes the anti-slip flooring which is grooved and has small metal protrusions that are close together to add grip to the animal’s hooves that will minimize the chance of an animal slipping and becoming a downer on the trailer. Animals must be transported in a trailer that is safe, with adequate room for the animal to stand comfortably in a natural position and is not crowded. Animals must be provided with proper protection from poor weather, ventilation and adequate food, water and rest at appropriate intervals. Cows must be given a five hour rest period for every forty-eight hours they spend on a trailer as regulated by the CFIA.

Downer animals can have many symptoms, such as not being able to stand on their own, fracture of limbs, deep wounds or severe chronic pain. It is unacceptable for an animal that has these injuries or is likely to incur them during loading or transportation to be put on a trailer and taken anywhere due to animal welfare issues and ethic considerations. The regulations developed by the CFIA and SPCA are enforced to ensure that animal rights are not violated.

 - Ben Farrant, Kim Cox, Jenn Jassal, Kelsey Podgurny, Shevawn Brecht, Kathleen Kitchen and Amy Stanley

 

Manure: solutution or poo-lution?

 
Manure: dirty, smelly, polluting nuisance. Right? Wrong! Manure, in fact, has played a significant role in sustaining life for centuries. First Nations peoples and, later, settlers utilized dried buffalo dung (a.k.a. meadow muffins) as a source of fuel for cooking and heating due to the scarcity of trees on the Canadian prairies. Today, manure is widely employed as a fertilizer by farmers and gardeners worldwide. Unfortunately, due to increased herd sizes resulting from modern intensive livestock production methods, the supply of manure is rapidly outpacing demand. An excess of animal waste poses a significant threat to the long-term environmental sustainability of animal agriculture in Alberta, primarily in the form of surface and groundwater contamination .

This threat can be addressed through a synthesis of traditional practices and modern technology; a biodigester is a perfect example of such a synthesis. In a biodigester, manure is broken down by anaerobic digestion which causes a combination of gases, known as biogas, to be produced . This biogas can then be used as a source of fuel, to produce both heat and electricity. In addition, the material that remains following digestion can be used as fertilizer. Just as meadow muffins were a source of renewable energy for settlers and First Nations peoples, animal waste produced in intensive operations like feedlots can provide the fuel for a modern method of sustainable energy production, and on a much larger scale.

However, this technology has been slow to catch on. Investors have been reluctant to get onboard, despite a 2006 9-Point Bioenergy funding plan passed by the Alberta government to encourage sustainable energy development . According to Mike Kotelko (VP Highland Feeders), sophisticated technology and expertise is required in the construction of biodigesters and, therefore, initial capital and subsequent operating costs can be prohibitively high. Kotelko maintains that in order for biodigesters to be economically viable they must be of a sufficiently large scale to offset operating costs and, in addition, they should be integrated on-site with complementary processes (such as ethanol production) that allow the byproducts of one process to be used in the other. Highland Feeders successfully operates an integrated biodigester, providing proof that this technology is economically feasible.

Biodigesters, then, represent a sustainable solution to two problems: finding a source of environmentally friendly, renewable energy, and what to do with all that poo!

- Christa Hostettler, Mark Smith, Jenn Stellbrink, Jacob Boychuck, Jordan Burke, Rachel Myers and Erika Strande

 

Saving time and money at feeding time

 

In the past, farmers processed and stored winter feed for their cattle. In recent years there has been a pendulum effect, whereby cattle producers have started wintering their cattle using swath grazing instead of on-farm feeding. This is when a crop (barley, oats, and corn) is cut in the fall, and left on the ground rather than processing it for feed. The swaths are then grazed. In spite of its use, swath grazing is still regarded with some scepticism.

The main idea behind swath grazing is to save producers labour and money. By allowing the cattle to graze in the field, feed processing, transportation, and the costs and labour associated with feeding and manure disposal are eliminated. Manure is left on the land, providing fertilizer for future crops.

Stephanie Kosinsky, a Forage Specialist with Alberta Agriculture and Rural Development, acknowledges that many producers are switching to swath grazing in an industry that continues to see increased costs. Kosinsky claims that swath grazing is a practical solution to combat both high fuel costs and the recent diesel shortages. As well as enabling producers to keep their costs low, thereby increasing their profit margin, labour associated with swath grazing is minimal when conditions are ideal. A local beef producer, Jay Herder, has used swath grazing for six years. He believes that swath grazing has many benefits. "The biggest advantage is that I am able to feed 250 cows in 20 minutes, which allows me to work off the farm." This is important because off-farm employment has become necessary for producers because current costs are rising, causing a decline in farm profits.

Herder admits there are also disadvantages to swath grazing. Weather is probably the biggest factor in determining how much care and maintenance the cattle will require. Snowfall is the largest issue for producers. A heavy snowfall, or snow that has hardened, may cause the cows to have difficulty accessing the swaths. Kosinsky agrees with Herder and advises that an alternative feed source must be available in case of a heavy snowfall. Water access should also be considered when swath grazing. Although cattle can eat snow, it is not an optimal water source. Cattle must eat large quantities of snow to compensate for water intake. This causes an energy loss when the snow is heated to body temperature. Therefore, an appropriate water system should be explored.

Despite some drawbacks, swath grazing is an inexpensive alternative to on-farm feeding. As feed costs are rising, producers are looking for more viable feeding alternatives. The Lacombe Research Program has shown that the costs for swath grazing are approximately fifty percent lower than the costs related to feeding stored feed. Research shows definitively that swath grazing is an effective way to reduce costs and labour. As Herder says, "the idea of cheapening the feeding cost is really the issue. As for the future, farmers have to search for ways to do this or their farms will not be very viable."

- Heather Fleck, Ingrid Buyks, Amy Mayner, Steven Cowan, Raven Deagle and Robin Diether